Essentials of Marketing Research by Clow, James

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Essentials of Marketing Research by Clow, James is the Essentials of Marketing Research: Putting Research Into Practice book authored by Kenneth E. Clow, University of Louisiana at Monroe, and Karen E. James, University of Louisiana, Shreveport, and published in 2014 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

  • Advertising effectiveness research. research that examines the effectiveness of advertising and marketing communications.
  • Applied marketing research. research designed to solve a specific marketing problem, to investigate a particular marketing phenomenon, or to understand the results of previous decisions.
  • Basic marketing research. research conducted to advance marketing knowledge in general or to verify a proposed marketing theory or concept.
  • Benefit and lifestyle studies. research that examines the similarities and differences consumers seek in products and how these benefits fit into particular lifestyles.
  • Competitive analysis studies. research that examines competitors within a market industry.
  • Descriptive function. gathering and presentation of information about a marketing phenomena or situation.
  • Diagnostic function. data analysis techniques used to investigate relationships and phenomena within data that have been gathered through marketing research.
  • Exploratory function. occurs when researchers have a limited understanding or no knowledge at all about a marketing situation or a particular outcome.
  • Market analysis study. research that examines the current marketing situation faced by a company or brand and then identifies potential markets.
  • Marketing mix. specific combination of product, pricing, promotional, and distribution decisions made for the purpose of targeting a particular group of consumers.
  • Marketing research. systematic gathering and analysis of marketing-related data to produce information that can be used in decision making.
  • Media studies. research that identifies the most appropriate media to reach a specific target market.
  • Predictive function. marketing research used to predict or forecast the results of a marketing decision or consumer action.
  • Pricing studies. research that evaluates the elasticity of a brand's price and the impact pricing changes will have on demand.
  • Product testing studies. research that identifies how a product fits the needs of consumers and what changes need to be made to the product to make it more attractive.
  • Sales forecasts. research that estimates future sales for a company or brand.
  • Sales potential studies. research that estimates potential sales for a product industry.
  • Sample aggregator. firm that collects data through utilizing multiple sample companies.
  • Site selection. research study to help retailers determine the best locations for retail outlets.
  • Target market analysis. research that provides basic demographic, psychographic, and behavioral information about specific target markets.
  • Test markets. research that provides information on how well a new product or product modification will do in a limited market before a national or international launch.
  • Advocacy research. research that is purposively designed to advocate or support a particular position.
  • Causal research. research used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
  • Cognitive neuroscience. a research process involving brain-image measurements through the tracking of brain activity.
  • Concomitant variation. condition for causality in which the two items thought to be linked in a causal relationship vary or change together and in the direction hypothesized.
  • Descriptive research. answers the questions who, what, when, where, and how in describing the characteristics of consumers, brands, and other marketing phenomena.
  • Experiment. a research study where all variables are held constant except the one under study.
  • Exploratory research. preliminary examination of a problem or situation to identify parameters to be studied further or to define the research problem itself.
  • Field experiment. an experiment in a real-world setting.
  • Lowball pricing. submitting an extremely low-priced bid in response to an RFP simply for the purpose of getting the contract, with no intention of doing the work at the quoted price.
  • Observation approach. research in which the behaviors of those being studied or the results of their behaviors are observed by researchers.
  • Pilot study. an abbreviated study with a limited number of respondents designed to provide information to the researcher useful in developing a larger, more definitive study.
  • Population. the group that is being studied from which samples are drawn.
  • Qualitative research. unstructured data collection methods that provide results that are subjectively interpreted.
  • Quantitative research. structured data collection methods that provide results that can be converted to numbers and analyzed through statistical procedures.
  • Request for proposal (RFP). a written document containing an official request for a research proposal (also referred to as an "invitation to bid").
  • Research hypothesis. expected research outcome that seems reasonable in light of existing information.
  • Research design. a plan to address the research problem, question, and/or hypothesis.
  • Research proposal. a written document prepared in response to an RFP that provides basic information about the research process that will be used.
  • Research purpose. statement that broadly specifies the situation, phenomenon, opportunity, or problem to be investigated, and guides the creation of research questions and hypotheses.
  • Research question (research objective). specifies the type of information needed to fulfill the research purpose and make managerial decisions.
  • Spurious association. apparent cause-and-effect relationship between two variables that is actually caused by other factors.
  • Survey research. research in which individuals are asked a series of questions about the topic under study.
  • Temporal sequence. condition for causality in which the cause precedes the effect.
  • Accounting database. contains a record of customer transactions that follows the rules of accounting, and is used for accounting purposes.
  • Blogs. online musings or discussions.
  • Bibliographic databases. digital databases that provide references to magazine and journal articles.
  • Click-through. a primary website analytic measuring how many individuals see an online ad, click on it, and go to the ad sponsor's website.
  • Data mining. the process of scanning and analyzing data to uncover patterns or trends.
  • Dwell rate. a web analytic measuring the percentage of ad impressions that resulted in a user engaging with the ad, such as clicking on it or mousing over it.
  • Dwell time. a web analytic measuring the amount of time users spend engaged with a particular advertisement or website page.
  • Geocoding. a secondary data compilation process that involves combining geographic information with demographic and psychographic information.
  • Length of engagement. a web analytic measuring how long an individual stays at a website and may include how many pages were viewed in total.
  • Marketing database. contains records of customers that involve communication interactions, demographic profiles, and any other information that a company has collected or purchased from an independent marketing data research firm.
  • Primary research. new research studies specifically developed to help fulfill the research purpose currently being investigated.
  • Search engine optimization (SEO). a process of increasing the probability of a particular company's website emerging from a search.
  • Secondary data. data collected previously for purposes other than for the current study at hand.
  • Syndicated research service. a marketing research firm that supplies standardized information to a number of clients.
  • Web analytics. various data collected from a website.
  • Cartoon test. projective technique using cartoon illustrations in which one or more characters are present, at least one of whom has an empty dialogue bubble, and the respondent is asked to project his or her feelings and thoughts by filling in the character dialogue.
  • Collectivism. the extent an individual's life is intertwined with the life of others and society.
  • Discussion guide. series of questions that will be asked of participants by the moderator during the focus group interview.
  • Focus groups. qualitative research method in which 8 to 12 individuals unknown to each other are brought together to discuss a particular topic.
  • Groupthink. phenomenon that occurs when individuals within the group come to a consensus on a thought or an idea through the informal leadership of one or two individuals.
  • In-depth interviews. qualitative research method involving one-on-one interviews for the purpose of probing deeply into an individual's thoughts and ideas to better understand a person's mental activities and behaviors.
  • Moderator. trained interviewer who guides the focus group discussion, encourages respondent participation, and prepares the client report.
  • Photo sort. projective technique requiring that participants sort through a stack of cards or photos, and select those that are representative of the topic of interest.
  • Probing questions. why, "what," "how," "please explain," or "tell me more" types of questions that will lead to deeper thinking.
  • Professional respondents. individuals who belong to multiple research panels for the purpose of participating in multiple research studies, often deceitfully, in order to obtain financial rewards or gifts.
  • Projective techniques. indirect methods of qualitative research using ambiguous stimuli that allow respondents to project their emotions, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs onto third-party or inanimate objects.
  • Sentence completion. projective technique in which respondents are given a partial sentence and asked to complete it with the first thoughts that come to mind.
  • Storytelling. qualitative projective approach that involves showing respondents a picture, cartoon, or series of pictures and asking them to tell a story about what they see.
  • Third-person technique. qualitative projective technique that involves asking individuals how someone else (a third person) would react to the situation, or what his or her attitude, beliefs, and actions may be.
  • Word association. qualitative projective research technique where respondents are given a series of words and asked to respond with the first word that comes to mind.
  • ZMET. qualitative projective technique that uses an in-depth interview to uncover emotional and subconscious beliefs and attitudes, over a two- or three-week period of time.
  • Clustering. form of text mining that groups similar documents together.
  • Cognitive neuroscience. brain-image measurement process that tracks the flow and movement of electrical currents in the brain.
  • Contrived setting observation. individuals are studied in a controlled or laboratory setting where they know they are being observed.
  • Direct observation. researchers watch participants as the behavior takes place.
  • Disguised observation. participants do not know they are being observed.
  • Duo-mining. software analysis tool combining text mining with data mining analysis.
  • Ethnographic research. observing individuals in their natural settings using a combination of direct observation and video and/or audio recordings.
  • Eye-tracking analysis. infrared technology that shows where the pupil is tracking by reflecting off of the eye's retina.
  • Galvanometer. measures changes in the electric resistance in the skin that results from a subject's exposure to stimuli.
  • Indirect observation. observing the results of consumer actions rather than the action itself.
  • Information extraction. form of text mining that looks for predefined sequences in text through analyzing unstructured text and identifying key phrases and relationships.
  • Market basket analysis. analysis and modeling of items purchased by households on shopping trips .
  • Natural setting observation. individuals are observed in their natural environment where they may or may not know they are being observed.
  • Observation research. systematic process of recording the behaviors or the results of behaviors of people, objects, and occurrences.
  • Open observation (or undisguised observation). individuals know they are being observed.
  • Pupilometer. measures the degree of pupil dilation that occurs in response to stimuli.
  • Structured observation research. researchers know beforehand what behaviors to expect and even the various categories or options within each behavior that should be recorded.
  • Summarization text mining. uses sentence analysis algorithms and key phrase words to determine if an article is relevant to the topic being studied.
  • Topic tracking. form of text mining that develops a user profile based on the documents a user views, then attempts to predict other documents that would be of interest.
  • Unstructured observation research. Researchers watch participants and record behaviors they feel are relevant to the study being conducted.
  • Voice-pitch analysis. focuses on subtle, involuntary physiological changes and anomalies in respondents' voice to reflect various emotions, stress, truth, or deception.
  • Cross-sectional study. research conducted at a single point in time that provides a snapshot of the subject or topic being studied at that particular time.
  • Deliberate falsification. error that occurs when an individual provides false answers on purpose.
  • Frame error. use of an incorrect sample frame.
  • Incidence. percentage of individuals, households, or businesses in the population that would be qualified as potential respondents in a particular study.
  • Interviewer error or bias. error that occurs when an interviewer influences a respondent to give erroneous answers, either intentionally or unintentionally.
  • Longitudinal study. research study over time in which the same questions are asked at different points in time.
  • Measurement error. difference between the responses that are obtained and the true responses that were sought.
  • Measurement instrument error or bias. error caused by the questionnaire or instrument being used for measurement.
  • Nonresponse bias. difference between the responses of those who participate in a study and those who do not participate in the study.
  • Population specification error. error that occurs when population is incorrectly identified.
  • Process error. error that occurs when data from a survey instrument are incorrectly entered into the computer program being used to tally and analyze the data.
  • Random error. error that is the result of chance and occurs accidentally throughout the research process.
  • Response rate. percentage of individuals who complete a study from among those who are contacted and asked to participate.
  • Sample frame. list of population members or elements from which the sample will be selected.
  • Search cost. cost associated with locating individuals who meet the sample criteria for a study.
  • Selection error. error that occurs when sampling procedures are not followed or are not clearly defined.
  • Systematic error. error resulting from amistake or problem in the research design or the research process.
  • Attrition. the loss of subjects during the time the experiment is being conducted (also called mortality).
  • Concomitant variation. condition for causality in which two variables are either positively or inversely correlated and vary together in a predictable manner.
  • Debriefing. explains the true purpose of a disguised experiment.
  • Dependent variable. outcome variable of the experiment that the independent variable seeks to influence, the effect component of a cause-and-effect relationship.
  • External validity. the extent to which the findings of an experiment (or research study) can be generalized to the population as whole, or to the particular population being studied.
  • History effect. occurs when some external event takes place between the beginning and the end of an experiment that changes the outcome of the event.
  • Independent variables. variables that are manipulated, or changed, in order to observe the effect on the dependent variable, the cause element in the cause-and-effect relationship.
  • Instrumentation effect. occurs when a change in the measurement instrument or other procedures used to measure the dependent variable cause an unwarranted change in the dependent variable.
  • Internal validity. the extent to which a particular treatment in an experiment produces the sole effect observed in the dependent variable.
  • Maturation. changes in the subject over time that modify the results of the experiment.
  • Observation. measurement of a variable or group of participants during an experiment.
  • One-group pretest-posttest design. preexperimental design in which measurements of the dependent variable are taken prior to the experiment and again after the experiment.
  • One-shot preexperimental design. preexperimental design that exposes test subjects to a treatment variable, which is then followed by a measurement of the dependent variable.
  • One-shot static group design. preexperimental design that uses a control group for comparison purposes and takes measurements after the experimental treatment.
  • Posttest-only control group design. experimental design in which subjects are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, followed by exposure to the treatment in the experimental group, after which both groups are posttested, with no pretest.
  • Preexperimental design. offers little or no control over extraneous variables and no randomization of subjects.
  • Pretest-posttest control group design. true experimental design in which subjects who have been randomly assigned to experimental and control groups are pretested, followed by exposure to the treatment in the experimental group, after which both groups are posttested.
  • Quasi-experimental design. type of research design in which researchers are unable to randomly assign subjects to the group or lack control of when the treatment occurs.
  • Randomization. process by which subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups.
  • Selection effect. occurs when the sample selected for a study is not representative of the population being studied or the samples selected for different groups within the study are not statistically the same .
  • Subjects. participants in an experimental research study.
  • Test marketing. uses preexperimental or quasi-experimental designs to test new product introductions and various aspects of the marketing mix.
  • Testing effect. occurs when exposure to a pretest sensitizes subjects to the test or experiment in a manner that affects the results of the experiment.
  • Time series control group design. time series design that includes a control group that is pretested and posttested at the same intervals as the treatment group.
  • Time series design. quasi-experimental design in which several pretests are conducted over time prior to exposure to the treatment, followed by several posttests over time.
  • Treatment. change or manipulation in the independent variable.
  • True experimental design. experiment in which subjects are randomly assigned to treatment conditions from a pool of subjects.
  • Validity. refers to the degree to which an experiment (or research study) measures what it is supposed to measure.
  • Census. survey of the entire population.
  • Cluster sample. probability sample method that involves dividing the population into mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups or subsets where each group or subset is assumed to be representative of the population, then randomly selecting elements from within each group or subset.
  • Convenience sample. nonprobability sample method where individuals or objects are chosen based on convenience.
  • Fixed sample. sample size is determined prior to conducting the research.
  • Judgment sample. nonprobability sample method where researchers use personal judgment to select the sample.
  • Nonprobability sample. chance or probability of someone being selected within a target population is not known and cannot be determined.
  • One-stage cluster sample. probability cluster sample method that involves randomly selecting clusters, then surveying all of the elements within the clusters that are selected.
  • Population. group from which a sample is drawn and which is the target of the research study.
  • Probability sample. each member of the target population has a known and nonzero chance of being selected.
  • Quota sample. nonprobability sample method of selecting a sample based on the target population's characteristics or criteria specified by the researcher.
  • Sample. group of individuals chosen to survey.
  • Sampling error. refers to the amount of error that the researcher is willing to accept as a result of the sampling process.
  • Sequential sample. sample is selected in stages or sequences stopping when sample size is sufficient for research purpose.
  • Simple random sample. probability sample method where each element of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected.
  • Snowball sample. nonprobability sample method of selecting a few respondents to participate in a study, then asking each respondent for names of additional individuals to participate.
  • Stratified sample. probability sample method that requires dividing the population into mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups related to the behavior or variables of interest, then randomly selecting elements independently from within each group.
  • Systematic random sample. probability sample method that involves randomly selecting the first respondent, then selecting each nth element of the population.
  • Two-stage cluster sample. probability cluster sample method that involves randomly selecting clusters, then randomly selecting elements within the clusters that were selected.
  • Absolute zero point. measurement designation of 0 indicates a total absence of the property being measured.
  • Categorically exhaustive. all possible responses on a scale are included in the answer categories.
  • Collectively exhaustive. responses fit into either one category or another but cannot belong to multiple categories.
  • Construct validity. method of evaluating validity by assessing how well the measurement captures the construct or concept under consideration and how well it logically connects to underlying theories.
  • Content validity. systematic process to evaluate validity by assessing the adequacy of the items used to measure a concept or construct.
  • Convergent validity. refers to the degree of correlation among constructs, and tests whether constructs that should be related are related.
  • Cronbach's alpha. internal consistency reliability method that produces a reliability coefficient for all possible combinations of a set of items within a scale.
  • Discriminant validity. items designed to measure one construct have a low correlation with items that measure a different construct.
  • Equivalent form reliability. method to evaluate reliability in which a second measurement instrument is developed that is equivalent to the first and then administered to the same subjects.
  • Face validity. opinion of the researcher or experts that an instrument measures what it is intended to measure.
  • Internal consistency reliability. method to evaluate reliability that involves using one measuring instrument and assessing its reliability through using different samples or different items within each scale.
  • Interval scale. scale in which numbers are assigned for the purpose of identification, the numbers indicate order, and the distance between the numbers assigned is considered to be equal.
  • Measurement. process of assigning numbers or labels to phenomena or characteristics.
  • Mutually exclusive. each response is uniquely different from other possible responses.
  • Nominal scale. scale in which numbers are assigned to objects or sets of objects for the purpose of identification.
  • Ordinal scale. scale in which numbers are assigned for the purpose of identification, but also have the property of being arranged in some type of array or order.
  • Point. interval in a scale.
  • Predictive validity. measure of validity that assesses how well a measurement can predict future actions or behavior.
  • Ratio scale. scale in which numbers are assigned for the purpose of identification, the numbers indicate order, the distance between the numbers is equal, and the scale has an absolute zero point.
  • Reliability. the degree to which a measurement is free from error and provides consistent results over time.
  • Split-half technique. method to evaluate reliability through randomly splitting items designed to measure a construct into two groups and then measuring the correlation between the two groups.
  • Test-retest reliability. method to evaluate reliability by repeating the measurement process with the same instrument with the same set of subjects.
  • Validity. ability of a measurement instrument to measure what it proposes to measure and be free of both systematic and random error.
  • Anchor contraction effect (ACE). systematic form of response bias in which international subjects report more intense emotions when answering questions in English, as opposed to when they answer the same questions in their native language.
  • Attitudes. relatively enduring predispositions to respond to an object in a consistent fashion.
  • Balanced scale. has the same number of positive response choices as negative choices.
  • Comparative scale. respondents are asked to evaluate or rate a brand, a product, an object, a concept, or a person relative to other brands, products, objects, concepts, or individuals or to an ideal item.
  • Constant sum scale. respondents allocate points among various alternatives so the total sums to a specified amount designated by the researcher.
  • Correlation. the degree to which one variable changes with another.
  • Factor analysis. analysis that reduces a larger number of items into a smaller subset of factors based on similarity.
  • Graphical rating scale. noncomparative scale that allows respondents to place a response anywhere on a continuous line.
  • Halo effect. when respondents have an overall feeling about the topic being surveyed and that overall perception influences their response so that all of the answers are relatively close to the same.
  • Itemized rating scale. respondents choose a response from a select number of items or categories.
  • Likert scale. series of statements to which respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with the statement.
  • Multidimensional scale. measures multiple dimensions or facets of a concept, an idea, or an attitude.
  • Noncomparative scale. respondents make judgments about a brand, a product, an object, a concept, or a person without reference to another item or an ideal item.
  • Paired comparison scale. respondents choose one of two items in a set based on a specific criterion or attribute.
  • Q-sort. comparative technique whereby respondents rank a set of objects into a prespecified number of categories along a particular attribute or criterion.
  • Rank-order scale. respondents compare two or more objects, concepts, or persons by ranking them in some type of ordered sequence.
  • Scaling. process of assigning numerical values or properties to subjective or abstract concepts.
  • Semantic differential scale. involves a finite number of choices anchored by dichotomous words or phrases.
  • Stapel scale. uses only one anchor and both positive and negative options.
  • Unbalanced scale. response categories are weighted toward one of the anchors, either positive or negative.
  • Unidimensional scale. measures only one attribute or concept.
  • Anonymity. responses given by a particular respondent can never be identified or tied to that particular person.
  • Break-off rate. percentage of individuals who start a survey but do not complete it.
  • Closed-ended question. question that gives respondents a finite number of responses from which to choose.
  • Confidentiality. although a researcher can identify who completed a particular survey, the researcher pledges to keep that information confidential and never reveal who the individual was that completed the survey.
  • Dichotomous question. closed-ended question with two options.
  • Double-barreled question. question that involves asking respondents two questions in one.
  • Leading question. survey question that leads the respondent to the desired answer.
  • Multiple-choice question. question with multiple (three or more) answers from which to choose.
  • Multiple-response question. form of multiple-choice question in which respondents are instructed to check all response options that apply.
  • Open-ended question. question that allows a respondent to answer in his or her own words.
  • Position bias. in a long list of response items individuals may not take time to look at all of the possible choices but simply check the first one that applies.
  • Questionnaire. set of questions or items used to generate data that meet specific research and survey objectives.
  • Scaled-response question. question that allows respondents to indicate a level or degree of intensity.
  • Split-questionnaire design. involves splitting a questionnaire into one core component that all respondents answer and multiple subcomponents with respondents answering only one subcomponent.
  • Coding. assigning numerical values to each response on the questionnaire.
  • Continuous data. another name for ratio-level data that can take any value and may include both integers and decimal points.
  • Cross-tabulation. counting the number of responses in two or more categories simultaneously.
  • Data cleaning. process of checking data for inconsistency.
  • Data entry. process of entering data into a computer spreadsheet such as SPSS or Excel that can be used for data tabulation and analysis.
  • Data validation. process to ensure data were collected properly and are as free of error and bias as possible.
  • Dummy coding. responses are coded 1 if a response option is selected and 0 if it is not selected.
  • One-way tabulation. counting the number of responses for each answer category within one question.
  • Parameter. characteristic of a population, such as the mean or mode.
  • Statistic. characteristic of a sample used as an estimator for the population parameter.
  • Straight-lining. occurs when a respondent selects the same response category for all or the majority of responses to "grid"-based questions.
  • Tabulation. counting the number of responses in each answer category of a question.
  • Multiple regression. examination of the relationship of multiple independent or predictor variables and one dependent or outcome variable.
  • Nonparametric procedures. statistical tests that are appropriate for nominal and ordinal data.
  • Parametric procedures. statistical tests that can only be used with interval- or ratio-level data.
  • Simple regression. examination of the relationship of one independent or predictor variable and one dependent or outcome variable.
  • Type I error. occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is actually true.
  • Type II error. occurs when the null hypothesis is accepted when it is actually false.
  • Conclusions. expanding of the interpretation to explain what the results of a research study actually mean.
  • Executive summary. presents a summary of the entire research report including the purpose of the research, key findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
  • Executive-ready report. shorter marketing research report based on principles of conciseness, adaptability, readability, and balance.
  • Findings. results of the data analysis.
  • Insights. conclusions derived from research that help firms to make more intelligent marketing decisions, which result in a competitive advantage for their company or brand.
  • Interpretations. presentation of findings in a context that the listener or reader can more easily understand.
  • Legend. explains what each different color-coded portion of the graph or chart represents.
  • Limitations. any potential problems that may have arisen during the data collection process or because of assumptions that were made during the research study.
  • Recommendations. courses of action that should be taken by the firm based on the results of the study.
  • Table of contents. lists the different sections of the report in sequential order.
  • Title page. front cover of the research report.
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