Marketing Communications 5e by De Pelsmacker, Geuens, Van den Bergh

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Marketing Communications 5e by De Pelsmacker, Geuens, Van den Bergh is the 5th edition of the Marketing Communications: A European Perspective by Patrick De Pelsmacker, Maggie Geuens, and Joeri Van den Bergh and published by Pearson Education Limited, Harlow, United Kingdom in 2013.

  • Ability (MAO factor). The resources needed to achieve a particular goal.
  • Achievement indicators of public relations effectiveness. Measure the extent to which a pre-specified objective has been met with a public of interest. Examples include the share of the target audience that has been reached, changes in awareness and knowledge, changes in opinions and attitudes, evolution of the image and goodwill of the company, and the extent to which behaviour has changed.
  • Action advertising. Tries to stimulate consumers to buy a product immediately.
  • Action communications. Seek to influence the buying behaviour of target groups and to persuade the consumer to purchase the product. The primary goal is to stimulate purchases.
  • Action costing budgeting. A budgeting method in which a programme or activity is planned, and the cost to carry it out is calculated.
  • Activation measures. Measure the extent to which people actively react to advertising by, for instance, looking up further information, talking to friends (buzz) and going to a store.
  • Addressable media. Media by means of which it is possible to communicate individually with each customer or prospect.
  • Advergames. A rich media type of brand-related online entertainment used as a tool for brand interaction and experience. Advergames use interactive game technology to deliver embedded messages to consumers. The advertising essage can then become an integral part of playing the game.
  • Advertising. Any paid, non-personal communication through various media by an identified company, non-profit organisation or individual.
  • Advertising clutter. The percentage of a medium vehicle that is advertising.
  • Advertising/performance allowances. Monetary incentives aimed at encouraging the retailer to advertise the manufacturer's brand and provided when proof of the ad is produced.
  • Advertorials. Informative ads with an editorial approach but also a clearly identified advertiser.
  • Affect-as-Information model. A model that posits that consumers may use feelings as a source of information to form an overall evaluation of a product or brand, not by means of a simple association, but through a controlled inferential process or, in other words, in an informed, deliberate manner.
  • Affiliate marketing or affiliate networking. Performancebased marketing technique on the Internet in which a business rewards one or more affiliates for each visitor brought about by the affiliate's own marketing efforts.
  • Affordability budgeting method. 'Leftover' resources, after all input costs (i.e. human resources, operational and financial costs) are invested in communications.
  • Aided brand awareness. The percentage of people that indicate a brand as one that they know in a certain product category.
  • Ambush or parasitic marketing. An organisation deliberately seeking an association with a particular event without being an official sponsor of the event to persuade the audience that the ambusher is a legitimate or major sponsor. A company may be a minor sponsor of an event but, by spending considerable budgets on advertising support, it creates the impression of being an important sponsor.
  • Anchor deals. The presence of a brand on certain content sites and portals as a supplier of brand-related content continuously for a long period.
  • Apps or mobile applications. Software applications, usually designed to run on smart phones and tablet computers.
  • Arbitrary budgeting method. Whatever the general manager or managing director decides will be implemented.
  • ATR model. Awareness→Trial→Reinforcement. Marketing communications first arouse awareness, then induce consumers towards a first trial purchase and then reassure and reinforce those users after their first purchase.
  • Attitude. A person's overall evaluation of an object, a product, a person, an organisation, an ad, etc. An attitude towards a particular brand (Ab) can be considered as a measure of how much a person likes or dislikes the brand, or of the extent to which he or she holds a favourable or unfavourable view of it.
  • Augmented product. The 'service layer' on top of the tangible product. It includes elements such as prompt delivery, installation service, after-sales service and management of complaints.
  • Banner ads. Graphic images (animated gifs or Java applets) used as advertisements.
  • Bastion brand. Flagship brand of a company that provides most profit for the company, often follows a premium price strategy, is characterised by a high level of psycho-social meaning and is generally considered as a high-performance brand.
  • Behavioural segmentation. Dividing the market into segments referring to product or brand preferences or use, or involvement with product categories.
  • β-coefficient analysis. Analysis by means of which the relationship between the number of exposures to an advertisement and the degree of memorisation (i.e. the percentage of the target group that remembers the ad) is studied.
  • Billboarding. Mentioning the name of a sponsor in or near a television programme.
  • Brand. A name, term, sign, symbol or design, or a combination of these, intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers, and to differentiate them from those of a competitor. A brand is a set of verbal and/or visual cues, and as such it is a part of a product's tangible features. It is an identifier that adds either rational and tangible dimensions (related to product performance) or symbolic, emotional and intangible dimensions (related to what the brand represents) that differentiate it from other products designed to fulfill the same need.
  • Brand activation. The seamless integration of all available communication means in a creative platform in order to activate consumers by stimulating interest, initiating trial and eventually securing consumer loyalty through interaction with target audiences. It is a marketing process of bringing a brand to life through creating brand experience.
  • Brand attitude. The perceived value of a brand to a consumer.
  • Brand awareness. The association of some physical characteristics such as a brand name, logo, package, style, etc., with a category need.
  • Brand community. A specialised, non-geographically bound community, based on a structured set of social relationships among users of a brand.
  • Brand confusion. The fact that a communication for brand X is regarded by the consumer as being a communication for a different brand, Y.
  • Brand dilution. When the brand name is used for so many different product categories that the brand personality becomes fuzzy and the brand's value deteriorates.
  • Brand equity. The value of a brand, the value added to a product by virtue of its brand name.
  • Brand experience. Sensations, feelings, cognitions and behavioural responses evoked by brand-related stimuli that are part of a brand's design and identity, packaging, communications and environments.
  • Brand extension or brand stretching. When an existing brand is used to market products in a different product category.
  • Brand feelings. Consumers' emotional responses to the brand.
  • Brand imagery. How consumers think about a brand in an abstract way rather than to what consumers believe the brand really does. Brand imagery pertains to intangible brand aspects that can become linked to the brand by customer experience, marketing communications, word of mouth, etc.
  • Brand knowledge. Target consumers are aware of the most essential brand characteristics, features and benefits.
  • Brand loyalty. The mental commitment or relation between a consumer and a brand.
  • Brand mark. The element of a brand that cannot be spoken, often a symbol, design or specific packaging.
  • Brand name. That part of a brand that can be spoken, including letters, words and numbers.
  • Brand personality. The set of human personality traits that are both applicable to and relevant for brands.
  • Brand placement. The paid inclusion of branded products or brand identifiers through audio and/or visual means within mass media programmes.
  • Brand portfolio. The set of all brands and brand lines that a company possesses.
  • Brand websites. Sites with specific brand-related information and/or services.
  • Broad brand awareness. The brand comes to mind often, in different usage situations.
  • Broadcast or programme sponsorship. A brand can sponsor a sports programme, the weather forecast or a 'soap'.
  • Buttons. Very small banner ads, rectangles or squares.
  • Buy-back allowance. To stimulate the retailer to put a new brand or a renewed version of the product on the shelves, the manufacturer sometimes offers to buy back the 'old' product, or commits to buying back the stock of the new product that is not sold during a specific period of time.
  • Buzz marketing. Giving people a reason to talk about your products or services and making it easier for that conversation to take place.
  • Campaign evaluation research. Advertising tests that focus on the effectiveness of a whole advertising campaign.
  • Capitation rating or achievement targeting budgeting. Audiences to be reached and objectives to be achieved are defined. Experience with previous campaigns are used to calculate the budget required to achieve these objectives.
  • Cash refunds. Discounts offered to the consumer by means of refunding part of the purchase price after sending a proof of purchase.
  • Catalogue. A list of products or services presented in a visual and/or verbal way. It may be printed or electronically stored on a disk, a CD-ROM or a database, or even be visualized on a website, where the pages can be virtually turned.
  • Categorical imperative. The philosopher Kant's ethical principle that one should act in such a way that the action taken under the circumstances could be a universal law of behaviour for everyone facing those same circumstances.
  • Category spending. The advertising spending in a product category.
  • Cause-related marketing or sponsorship. The support of a social cause that a firm generates through financial interactions with its customers.
  • Caveat emptor. An ethical view that any marketing action that is legal is also ethical.
  • Caveat venditor. An ethical view which implies that the maximisation of consumer satisfaction or well-being should be the ultimate aim of marketing action.
  • Celebrity endorsement. Celebrities are used in marketing communications to endorse a product.
  • Central-route processing. If motivation, ability and opportunity to process a message are all high, the elaboration likelihood is said to be high and consumers are expected to engage in central route processing. This means that they are willing to elaborate on the information, evaluate the arguments and find out what the information really has to offer.
  • Co-branding. Two or more brands are simultaneously presented on one product.
  • Co-creation. Soliciting input from customers for new products.
  • Collaborative projects. Social media type, the main idea of which is that the joint effort of many actors leads to a better outcome than any actor could achieve individually; also referred to as 'the wisdom of crowds' (e.g. Wikipedia).
  • Collective advertising. When a government takes the initiative for a campaign.
  • Collectivistic culture. Culture in which people belong to strong, cohesive in-groups (often extended families) who look after and protect each other in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
  • Communications audit. All forms of internal and external communications are studied to assess their consistency with overall strategy, as well as their internal consistency.
  • Communications content research. Used to help communications creatives generate ideas about the content of new communications stimuli.
  • Comparative advertising. An advertisement that directly or indirectly compares one brand with others. A direct
  • [[comparative ad explicitly names the comparison brand (often a well-known competitive brand) and claims that the
  • [[comparison brand is inferior to the advertised brand with respect to a specific attribute. An indirect comparative ad does not explicitly mention a comparison brand, but argues to be superior on a certain attribute compared with other brands.
  • Competitive parity budgeting analysis. Companies look at the amount of money that competitors spend on communications and then copy their budgets.
  • Competitive tendering budgeting. A marketing communications programme is decided on and different agencies are requested to file a proposal and a budget.
  • Competitor communications strategy research. Competitive ads, promotions, budgets and shares of voice, target groups, positioning, communications strategies, media strategies, PR material, etc., are collected and analysed to judge competitive (communications) strategies in order to define target groups and positioning strategies more clearly for the company's own products.
  • Conference-bound exhibitions. Small exhibitions linked to a conference. They have a low reach, but may be highly effective as a result of their high selectivity on the target group.
  • Confusing positioning. Inconsistent communications or an inconsistent choice of distribution channels would give a customer a confused image of a company or brand.
  • Consistency in marketing communications. Marketing instruments combined in such a way that the company's offering is consistently marketed. In other words, all marketing instruments have to work in the same direction, and not conflict with each other.
  • Consumer brand equity. The underlying customer- and marketing-related components of brand equity.
  • Consumer promotions. Sales promotions by manufacturers or retailers targeted at end-consumers.
  • Consumer sovereignty. An ethical view that ethical marketing decisions are determined by the answer to three important questions. Is the target market vulnerable in ways that limit consumer decision-making (consumer capability) and are consumers' expectations at purchase likely to be realised? Do consumers have sufficient information to judge (consumer information) and can consumers go elsewhere? Would they incur substantial costs or inconvenience by transferring their loyalty (consumer choice)?
  • Content communities. The main objective of content communities is sharing content between users. Content communities share different media types, such as text, photos, videos and presentations (e.g. YouTube, Flickr, Instagram).
  • Content sponsorship. Placing an advertiser's message in an area on a website that stands out from other advertisements, for instance a fixed and exclusive presence in a chosen section that is relevant to the advertiser's brand.
  • Continuous advertising schedule. The advertiser spends a continuous amount of money throughout the whole campaign period.
  • Contractualism. An ethical principle that focuses upon implied obligation, contracts, duties and rules.
  • Controversial or shock advertising. Advertising that deliberately startles and offends its audience, by means of deliberate norm violation – transgression of law or custom (obscenity) or moral/social code (vulgarity) – or by showing things that outrage the moral or physical senses (e.g. provocative or disgusting images).
  • Co-operative advertising. Two manufacturing companies, or a retailer and a manufacturer, jointly develop an advertising campaign.
  • Core product. The unique benefit that is being marketed. It is the position, the unique place in the mind of the consumer, that will be focused upon.
  • Corporate behaviour. The way in which the employees of a company behave. It is an important factor in making the corporate identity visible.
  • Corporate branding. The name of the company used for all the company's products.
  • Corporate communications. The total integrated approach to the communications activity generated by all functional departments of a company, targeted at all stakeholders of the company, and aimed at establishing and maintaining the link between strategic objectives, the corporate identity and the corporate image in line.
  • Corporate culture. The deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an organisation, that operate unconsciously and define in a basic 'taken-for-granted' fashion an organisation's view of itself and its environment.
  • Corporate design. See Corporate symbolism.
  • Corporate identity. The set of meanings by which a company allows itself to be known and through which it allows people to describe, remember and relate to it. It is the way the company chooses to present itself to its relevant target audiences by means of symbolism, communications and behaviour.
  • Corporate image. The stakeholder's perception of the way an organisation presents itself. It is the result of the interaction of all experiences, beliefs, feelings, knowledge and impressions of each stakeholder about an organisation. It is a subjective and multidimensional impression of the organisation.
  • Corporate personality. The values held by personnel within the organisation, the collective, commonly shared understanding of the organisation's distinctive values and characteristics. It encompasses corporate philosophy, mission, strategy and principles.
  • Corporate public relations. Mainly maintaining good relations and creating goodwill with all kinds of audiences who may be important for the company in the long run.
  • Corporate reputation. The evaluation or esteem in which an organisation's image is held. It is based on experience with the company and/or exposure to communications, behaviour and symbolism. While corporate image can be quite transient and short-term in nature, corporate reputation is more firmly embedded in the mind of an individual.
  • Corporate social responsibility (CSR). also referred to as 'corporate citizenship'. CSR is an idea that includes the social, the economic and the environmental aspects of business activity ('triple bottom line'). It is the integration of social and environmental values within a company's core business operations and an engagement with stakeholders to improve the well-being of society.
  • Corporate strategy. Long-term strategic objectives of a company.
  • Corporate structure. Organisational structure and brand structure. Organisational structure is concerned with the lines of communication and reporting responsibilities within the organisation. It relates to the degree of centralisation and decentralisation, and often has a major influence on brand structure.
  • Corporate symbolism or corporate design. A consistent house style on business cards, letter heads, vehicles, gifts, clothes, equipment, packaging, etc. It is an integral part of the corporate identity, or at least of the way in which it is made visible.
  • Cost per thousand. Calculated by dividing the cost of the medium (the air cost of a 15- or 30-second commercial, the cost of a one-page magazine ad, etc.) by the medium's total reach, expressed in thousands of contacts.
  • Cost per thousand in the target market. Calculated by dividing the cost of the medium (the air cost of a 15- or 30-second commercial, the cost of a one-page magazine ad, etc.) by the medium's useful reach in thousands contacts.
  • Coupons. Vouchers representing a monetary value with which the consumer can get a discount on a specific product.
  • Creative brief. A document provided by the advertiser that forms the starting point for the advertising agency to develop a campaign.
  • Creative idea. An original and imaginative thought designed to produce goal-directed and problem-solving advertisements and commercials, a proposition which makes it possible to communicate a brand's position in an original, attentiongetting, but easy-to-catch way.
  • Culture. The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from those of another.
  • DAGMAR model. A model that describes nine effects of marketing communications that should be reached consecutively: category need, brand awareness, brand knowledge, brand attitude, purchase intention, purchase facilitation, purchase, satisfaction, brand loyalty.
  • Database. A collection of interrelated data of customers and prospects which can be used for different applications such as analysis, individual selection, segmentation and customer retention, loyalty and service supports.
  • Day After Recall (DAR) test. Advertising post-test by means of a telephone interview. A number of consumers are called. They are asked to indicate which ads they saw on television or heard on the radio the day before, within a certain product category. Brand names are mentioned, and the respondent has to indicate if he or she remembers having seen or heard an ad for the brand. Additionally, a number of questions about the ad content are asked.
  • Dealer loaders. Additional materials are offered to the retailer during a promotional campaign, for instance a refrigerator during a soft drinks promotion. After the promotion, the retailer can keep the extra equipment.
  • Decent marketing communications. Those that do not contain anything that is likely to cause widespread offence, fear or distress.
  • Deceptive marketing communications. Consumers are deceived when there is a claim–fact discrepancy and the false claim is believed by customers. Moreover, the message must be misleading, i.e. representation, omission or practice that is likely to mislead the customer, from the perspective of a reasonable consumer, i.e. by a reasonable number of the group to which the practice is targeted, and the deceptive practice must be material, i.e. important and likely to impact on consumers' choice or conduct regarding the product and thus relate to a central characteristic.
  • Deep brand awareness. The brand comes to mind easily and enjoys high top-of-mind awareness.
  • Demographic segmentation. Divides the market on the basis of sex, age, family size, religion, birthplace, race, education, income or social class.
  • Demonstration advertising. An advertisement in which consumers are shown how a product works.
  • Deontological approach (idealism). Ethical principle that focuses upon duties. Some actions are intrinsically right or wrong.
  • Direct mail. Written commercial messages, personally addressed and sent by mail.
  • Direct marketing communications. Contacting customers and prospects in a direct way with the intention of generating an immediate and measurable response or reaction. 'Direct' means using direct media such as mailings (including e-mailings), catalogues, telephone or brochures, and not through intermediaries such as dealers, retailers or sales staff. An immediate response is possible via the Internet (e-mail/website/social media), answering coupons, phone or a personal visit of the customer to the store or retailer.
  • Direct opinion measurement test. A jury of customers is exposed to a number of ads and asked to rate the ads on a number of characteristics.
  • Direct public relations. Aimed directly at the stakeholders of interest.
  • Direct response print advertising or coupon advertising. Placing an advertisement in a newspaper or a magazine with the following characteristics: direct feedback from the reader (respondent) to the advertiser by returning a coupon, calling a phone number, visiting a website, participating in a contest; a clear link between the response (feedback) and the message advertised; identification of the respondent.
  • Direct response television (DRTV). Television used as a medium to generate reactions.
  • Distributive justice. Ethical principle that holds that rewards are allocated in proportion to the contribution made to organisational ends.
  • Double-spotting. Two spots are placed within the same programme to increase the likelihood of obtaining the effective frequency.
  • Dramatisation advertising. An advertisement similar to slice-of-life advertising. Both first present a problem and afterwards the solution, but a dramatisation builds suspense and leads consumers to a climax.
  • Dual branding strategy. A branding strategy in which two brand names are used.
  • Dual mediation model. The evaluation of an ad has not only an immediate impact on the evaluation of the brand, but also an indirect effect on brand attitude via brand cognitions. The reasoning behind this model is that consumers who hold a positive attitude towards the communication are more likely to be receptive to arguments in favour of the brand advertised.
  • Dual or second screening. When people interact with their TV via their PC.
  • E-communications. Electronic ways to communicate interactively with different stakeholders.
  • Effective frequency. The minimum number of exposures, within a purchase cycle, considered necessary to motivate the average prospect in the target audience to accomplish an advertising objective.
  • Effective reach. The number of target consumers of an advertising campaign who are expected to be exposed to the advertiser's message at an effective frequency level.
  • Effectiveness goals of communication. Goals that should be reached at the brand level: awareness, knowledge, brand attitudes, buying intentions, sales, market share.
  • Elaboration Likelihood model (ELM). A model that explains how a message can lead to attitude change. The model is a dual-processing model in that it distinguishes two routes to persuasion, a central and a peripheral one, based on motivation, ability and opportunity to process the message.
  • Emotional advertising appeals. Advertisements whose main purpose is to elicit affective responses and to convey an image.
  • Emotional selling proposition (ESP). A non-functional benefit used in marketing communications, usually a unique psychological association to consumers.
  • Endorsement branding. Two brand names of the same company are used, one of them serving as a quality label or endorsement.
  • Erotic advertising. An appeal that contains one or more of the following elements: partial or complete nudity, physical contact between two adults, sexy or provocatively dressed person(s), provocative or seductive facial expression, suggestive words or sexually laden music.
  • Ethics. Principles that serve as operational guidelines for both individuals and organisations.
  • Ethics code. An ethical view that strives for standards on the basis of which companies' and industries' ethical performance is judged, or at least to which they aspire. This set of standards often contains ethical guidelines that go further than the law.
  • Event marketing. Using a number of elements of the communications mix to create an event for the purpose of reaching strategic marketing objectives.
  • Event-related sponsorship. Sponsoring various types of event-related phenomena, such as a soccer competition, a team, an athlete, shirts, a golf tournament, skiing, a baseball game, an exhibition, a series of concerts, a philharmonic orchestra, an artist, a rock concert, a beach festival or an annual traditional crafts exhibition.
  • Experiential hierarchy-of-effects model. Consumers' affective responses towards a product lead them to buy it and, if necessary, reflect on it later. This leads to an affective–conative–cognitive sequence.
  • Expert endorsement. An advertising format in which an expert appears who endorses and commends a product.
  • External public relations. Directed towards various types of external target groups. Three important types of external corporate PR and PR target groups can be distinguished: public affairs, financial and media PR.
  • Extra volume or BOGOF (Buy One Get One Free) promotion. An extra quantity of the product is temporarily offered at the same price.
  • Fear appeal advertising. An advertisement that refers the consumer to a certain type of risk (threat) that he or she might be exposed to and which he or she usually can reduce by buying the product or avoiding the behaviour (coping efficacy).
  • Feminine culture. Culture in which caring for others and quality of life are central values.
  • Fighter brand. A brand sold at a lower price, situated between the price of the bastion and discount brands. Its quality perception is usually lower than that of the bastion and flanker brands.
  • Financial brand equity. The financial value of the brand for the company.
  • Financial public relations. Directed towards financial audiences, those groups that are potential shareholders, investors or (potential) advisers to shareholders and investors, such as financial consultants and banks. They are vital for the establishment of the long-term money-raising potential of a company. A crucial objective towards these audiences is to build and maintain the confidence that is necessary to give the company an image of an interesting investment.
  • Fishbein model. A model of attitude formation in which brand attitudes are made up of three elements: relevant product attributes, the extent to which one believes the brand possesses these attributes, and the evaluation of these attributes or how good/bad one thinks it is for a brand to possess these attributes. More specifically, brand attitude is represented by the weighted sum of the products of brand beliefs and attribute evaluations.
  • Flanker brand. Follows a similar price–profit ratio as the bastion brand, is also characterised by a high psycho-social meaning and perceived performance level, but usually appeals to a different, smaller market segment (niche).
  • Flighting advertising schedule. Advertising concentrated in only a few periods and not during the whole campaign period.
  • Flog. Fake weblog, when firms develop a fake consumer blog about the consumption of some product or service without stating the company's role in the communication.
  • Foot–Cone–Belding grid (FCB grid). Buying behaviour model in which four different buying situations are distinguished, based on two dimensions, i.e. the high–low involvement and the think–feel dimension.
  • Free in-mail promotion. The customer receives a (nearly) free gift in return for a proof of purchase which has to be sent to the manufacturer.
  • Frequency. Indicates how many times a consumer of the target group, on average, is expected to be exposed to the advertiser's message within a specified time period.
  • Full market coverage. A company tries to target all customer groups with all the products they need.
  • Gallup–Robinson Impact test. A recall test for print ads. People are called and asked to recall as many ads as they can. After that, a number of questions about the content of the ads are asked: proved name registration, idea penetration and conviction.
  • Generic advertising. Campaigns that promote a whole product category.
  • Generic brands. Indicate the product category. In fact, the concept is a contradiction in terms. Generics are in fact brandless products.
  • Geographic segments. Divides the market based on continents, climate, nations, regions or neighbourhoods.
  • Globalised communication campaign. See Standardised campaign.
  • Glocalisation. 'think global, act local'. The marketer has a global vision and positioning, but adapts certain aspects of the communications mix to the local context.
  • Golden rule. When faced with a decision that appears to have ethical implications, act in a way that you would expect others to act towards you.
  • Green marketing. The development and promotion of products that are environmentally safe: biodegradable, recycled, etc.
  • Gross Rating Points (GRP). Gross reach of an advertising campaign expressed as a percentage of the target group. The weight of a campaign is typically expressed by GRP.
  • Gross reach. The sum of the number of contacts in the target group that an advertising campaign reaches, regardless of how many times an individual is reached. In other words, a person who is reached by medium x and medium y counts as two.
  • Heuristic evaluation. When consumers do not have the time to compare all available brands on relevant attributes, they may infer from one specific attribute that the brand is a high-quality brand and therefore form a positive attitude towards it.
  • Hierarchy-of-effects model. A model of consumer behaviour that assumes that things have to happen in a certain order, implying that the earlier effects form necessary conditions in order for the later effects to occur. According to the traditional hierarchy-of-effects models, consumers go through three different stages in responding to marketing communications, namely a cognitive, an affective and a conative stage, or a think–feel–do sequence.
  • High-context cultures. Cultures in which words are one part of the message, the other part is formed by body language and the context, i.e. the social setting, the importance and knowledge of the person.
  • Historical comparison budgeting. Budgeting based on what has been spent in previous periods, possibly adjusted as a function of changed circumstances.
  • Honest and truthful marketing communications. Those that do not exploit inexperience or lack of knowledge of consumers; no claims should be made which are inaccurate, ambiguous or intended to mislead whether through explicit statement or through omission.
  • Horizontal trade fairs. Exhibitors from one single industry exhibit their products and services to professional target groups, such as sales agents or distributors, from different industries.
  • Humorous advertising. An appeal created with the intent to make people laugh, irrespective of the fact that the humour is successful (people indeed perceive the ad as humorous) or unsuccessful (people do not think the ad is funny).
  • Idea advertising. When mostly not-for-profit organisations promote ideas.
  • Image or theme communications. The advertiser tries to improve relations with target groups, increase customer satisfaction or reinforce brand awareness, brand attitude, brand image and brand preference.
  • Inbound telemarketing. Interested customers or prospects use the phone to contact the company and ask for product information, order a product, ask for help with a problem or file a complaint (incoming calls).
  • Income proportion budgeting. A pre-specified proportion of margin or sales is devoted to marketing communications.
  • Indirect public relations. Tries to reach stakeholders of interest indirectly through other publics. In that respect, employees, consultants and especially the media can be considered as indirect PR audiences.
  • Individualist culture. Culture in which there are loose ties between people and in which people look after themselves and their immediate family only.
  • Industrial advertising. Aimed at a company that buys the products to use in its own production process.
  • Industry comparison budgeting. The industry average is used as a benchmark to decide the marketing communications budget.
  • Industry identity. Underlying economic and technical characteristics of an industry, such as industry size, growth, competitiveness, culture and technology levels.
  • Inertia budgeting analysis. Keeping budgets constant year on year, while ignoring the market, competitive actions or consumer opportunities.
  • Informational buying motives. Buying motivations that are aimed at reducing or reversing negative motivations such as solving or avoiding a problem, or normal depletion.
  • Ingredient branding. A brand of a basic ingredient of a product is mentioned next to the actual product's brand name.
  • Input indicators of public relations effectiveness. Measure PR efforts, such as the number of news stories disseminated, the number of interviews given, trade meetings organised, supermarkets visited or brochures sent. Input indicators measure efforts and not results.
  • In-script sponsoring. A specific form of product placement in which the sponsoring brand becomes part of the script of the programme.
  • Institutional advertising. Government campaigns.
  • Integrated marketing communications. A concept of marketing communications planning that recognises the added value of a comprehensive plan that evaluates the strategic roles of a variety of communications disciplines, e.g. general advertising, direct response, sales promotion and public relations – and combines these disciplines to provide clarity, consistency and maximum communications impact.
  • Interactive television (iTV) or Digital television (DTV). Television content that gives viewers the ability to interact with programmes and to use a number of interactive services such as t-government, t-banking, t-commerce, t-learning information, games, video-on-demand and communication (t-mail), all supported by a set-top box.
  • Internal public relations. Aimed at internal stakeholders, such as employees and their families and shareholders. The main purpose of internal public relations is to inform employees about the company's strategic priorities and the role they are playing in them, and to motivate them to carry out these objectives.
  • Internet. The computer network infrastructure that enables the exchange of digital data on a global scale.
  • Interstitials. Banner ads that appear temporarily when loading a new web page.
  • Involvement. The importance people attach to a product or a buying decision, the extent to which one has to think it over and the level of perceived risk associated with an inadequate brand choice.
  • Issues audit. Issues are those potential areas that could have an important impact upon the operations of the company. An issues audit identifies all that might be of consequence and helps the company to react and to plan ahead.
  • Keyword buying. See Search engine advertising.
  • Law of extremes theory. Assumes that the relationship between the attitude towards the ad and the attitude towards the brand follows a J-shaped curve. The latter means that not only a very positive, but also a very negative, attitude towards the ad can eventually lead to a positive attitude towards the brand, while communications evoking a moderate instead of an extreme attitude towards the ad result in a less positive brand attitude.
  • Legal marketing communications. Those that are allowed under the current regulations and laws of the country in which the company operates.
  • Lifestyle segmentation. Dividing the market on the basis of how people organise their lives and spend their time and money. Lifestyle measurement is based on the activities, interests and opinions (AIO) of consumers. Activities include how people spend their money and time, e.g. work, leisure, product use, shopping behaviour, etc. Interests can be in fashion, housing, food, cars, culture, etc. Opinions are attitudes, preferences and ideas on general subjects such as politics or economics, on more specific subjects, or on oneself and one's family.
  • Lifetime value of a customer. The net present value of the profits a company will generate from a customer over a period of time.
  • Line extension. A new product introduction in an existing product category using the same brand name.
  • List price. The 'official' price of a product.
  • Lobbying. The activities that companies undertake to influence decisions of government bodies or the opinion of pressure groups in a positive direction.
  • Low-context cultures. Cultures in which a lot of emphasis is placed on words. One is as accurate, explicit and unambiguous as possible so that the receiver can easily decode the message and understand what is meant.
  • Low-involvement hierarchy-of-effects model. Consumers, after frequent exposure to marketing messages, might buy the product, and decide afterwards how they feel about it (cognitive–conative–affective hierarchy).
  • Management judgement test. Ad execution proposals are presented to a jury of advertising managers, to check whether all the crucial elements of the strategic brief are correctly represented in the execution elements proposed.
  • Manufacturer advertising. Initiated by a manufacturing company that promotes its own brands.
  • Manufacturer brands. Brands developed, owned and marketed by manufacturers of the product.
  • Marginal budgeting analysis. Investing resources as long as extra expenses are compensated by higher extra returns.
  • Market segmentation. Dividing a market into more homogeneous sub-groups on the basis of potentially relevant factors, in that the members of one group share the same need and react in the same way to marketing stimuli and differ in their reactions to these stimuli from the members of other segments.
  • Market specialisation. A company concentrates on one market segment and sells different products to that group of customers.
  • Marketing. The process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create and exchange value, and satisfy individual and organisational objectives.
  • Marketing communications. All instruments by means of which the company communicates with its target groups and stakeholders to promote its products or the company as a whole.
  • Marketing public relations. Targeted at commercial stakeholders, such as distributors, suppliers, competitors and potential customers, and more in direct support of marketing communications than corporate PR.
  • Masculine culture. Culture in which assertiveness, competitiveness and status are valued highly.
  • Masked identification test. Advertising test in which part of a print ad, usually the brand name, is covered. The subject is asked if he or she recognises the ad, and if he or she knows what brand it is for. Recognition and correct attribution scores can then be calculated.
  • Mass communications. The message transfer takes place with a number of receivers who cannot be identified, using mass media to reach a broad audience.
  • Media mix. The way advertising spending is allocated across different media.
  • Media plan. Specifies which advertising media and vehicles will be purchased when, at what price and with what expected results. It includes such things as flow charts, the names of specific magazines, reach and frequency estimates and budgets.
  • Media public relations. Developing and maintaining good contacts with radio, television and the (trade) press.
  • Medium context of advertising. Characteristics of the content of the medium in which an ad is inserted, as they are perceived by the individuals who are exposed to the ad.
  • Medium selectivity. The extent to which a medium is directed towards the target group. Medium selectivity can be represented by a selectivity index showing how well the target group is represented in the medium reach, relative to the universe.
  • Mere exposure effect. Prior mere exposure to stimuli (such as brands) increases positive affect towards these stimuli.
  • Micro-sites. A temporary brand site that is used for a short period during a product launch.
  • Mobile marketing or wireless advertising. All the activities undertaken to communicate with customers through the use of mobile devices to promote products and services by providing information or offers.
  • Morals. Beliefs or principles that individuals hold concerning what is right and what is wrong.
  • Motivation (MAO factor). Willingness to engage in behaviour, make decisions, pay attention, process information.
  • Multi-branding. A brand strategy in which different brands are used for products or product ranges in the same product category.
  • MUSH sponsorship. Sponsorship of good causes: Municipal, University, Social, Hospital.
  • Net promoter score. Based on the question 'To what degree would you recommend the following brand to your family or friends?', measured on a 0–10-point scale. The net promoter score is calculated by subtracting the percentage of people scoring 0–6 from the percentage of people who scored 8–10.
  • Net reach. The sum of all people in the target group reached at least once by an advertising campaign (a person reached by both media x and y counts as one).
  • Non-addressable media. Media by means of which it is not possible to communicate individually with each customer or prospect.
  • Objective-and-task budgeting analysis. Starts from communications objectives and the resources that are needed to reach these planned goals. All needed investments are then added and this will lead to the overall communications budget.
  • Off-invoice allowances. Direct price reductions to the trade during a limited period of time.
  • One-to-one marketing. Getting the right product through the right channel at the right moment to the right customer.
  • Online advertising. Commercial messages on specific rented spaces on websites of other companies.
  • Opportunity (MAO factor). The extent to which the situation enables a person to obtain the goal set.
  • Opportunity to see (OTS). The average probability of exposure that an average reached target consumer of an advertising campaign has. It is calculated by dividing gross reach by net reach.
  • Opt-in. A principle implying that receivers of e-mail have voluntarily agreed to receive commercial e-mails about topics that they find interesting. They do so by subscribing on websites and checking a box.
  • Opt-out. A principle implying that receivers of e-mail have to uncheck the box on a web page to prevent being put on an e-mail list.
  • Ordinary decency. An ethical principle that means that lying, cheating and coercion are always considered unethical.
  • Outbound telemarketing. The marketer is taking the initiative to call clients or prospects (outgoing calls).
  • Outcomes rule. The ethical quality of a decision is judged in terms of performance, rewards, satisfaction and feedback.
  • Outdoor advertising. Media such as billboards and transit media in the form of messages on buses, trams, in stations, etc.
  • Output indicators of public relations effectiveness. Measure the result of the PR activity in terms of media coverage or publicity. Examples of such measures are the press space or television time devoted to the company, its events or brands, the length of the stories, the tone and news value of the headlines, readership/viewership levels, opportunity to see, tone of coverage.
  • Overpositioning. Extreme positioning on one benefit.
  • Pay per click advertising model. Keyword buying online advertisers only pay for each click-through on their sponsored link.
  • Perceived behavioural control (PBC). The perceived ease or difficulty of performing a behaviour. It is assumed to reflect past experience as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles.
  • Percentage of sales budgeting analysis. Budgets are defined as a percentage of the projected sales of the next year.
  • Perception–Experience–Memory model. A model that links the effect of marketing communications to previous and current perception, experience and memory.
  • Peripheral-route processing. If the motivation, ability or opportunity to process a message is low, consumers are more likely to process the information peripherally. The result of the latter is no real information processing, but an evaluation based on simple, peripheral cues, such as background music, humour, an attractive source or endorser, the number of arguments used, etc.
  • Personal communications. Message transfer directed to certain known and individually addressed persons.
  • Physiological advertising test. Test by means of which the reaction of the body to advertising stimuli is measured. Examples are: pupil dilation, galvanic skin response, heartbeat and voice pitch analysis, and electroencephalography.
  • Podcast. A sound file with an RSS feed that can be listened to by any MP3 or audio player. This technology makes it easy for people to create their own audio recordings and post them on the Web.
  • Point-of-purchase communications. Communications at the point-of-purchase or point-of-sales (i.e. the shop). They include several communications tools such as displays, advertising within the shop, merchandising, article presentations, store layout, etc.
  • Pop-unders. Banner ads that appear in a separate window beneath the visited website.
  • Pop-ups. Banner ads that appear in a separate window on top of the visited website.
  • Positioning. Defining a unique and relevant position for a product in the mind of the target group, the way a product is perceived by the target group on important attributes, or the 'place in the mind' a product occupies relative to its competitors.
  • Post-experience model. The model assumes relations between the current purchase on the one hand, and previous purchase, previous advertising, previous promotion, current advertising and current promotion, on the other.
  • Post-test. A test of the effectiveness of a single ad after placement in the media.
  • Power distance. The extent to which authority plays an important role, and to what extent less powerful members of the society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.
  • Premium. Small gifts that come with a product offered in-, on- or near-pack.
  • Press kit/press release. A set of documentation, containing photos, reports and a press release, which is sent to journalists or presented at a press conference. A press release is a document that contains the material that the company would like to see covered in the press.
  • Prestige brand. High-quality, luxurious brand targeted at a smaller segment, looking for status and high psycho-social meaning.
  • Pre-test. Advertising stimuli are tested before the ad appears in the media. The general purpose is to test an ad or different ads to assess whether or not they can achieve the purpose for which they are designed.
  • Pre-test checklists. Used to make sure that nothing important is missing in the proposed advertising concept, and that the ad is appealing, powerful and 'on strategy'.
  • Price cut on the shelf. Consumer promotion in which the consumer gets an immediate discount when buying the product.
  • Private label brands (also called own-label brands, store or dealer brands). Brands developed, owned and marketed by wholesalers or retailers.
  • Problem solution advertising. An advertisement that shows how a problem can be solved or avoided.
  • Process goals of communication. Conditions which should be established before any communication can be effective. All communications should capture the attention of the target group, then appeal or be appreciated, and last but not least be processed and remembered.
  • Product confusion. Attributing a stimulus to a wrong product category.
  • Product specialisation. A company concentrates on one product and sells it to different market segments.
  • Professional ethics. Only take actions that would be viewed as proper and ethical by an objective panel of professional colleagues.
  • Psychographic segmentation. Segmenting markets using lifestyle or personality criteria.
  • Public affairs. A management function directed towards the societal and political relations of the company. It is aimed at continuously studying trends and issues related to government decision-making and opinions and attitudes of the general public. Good contacts with the general public and the local community are a part of the public affairs activity.
  • Public or general fairs. Exhibitions and fairs that are open to the general public. There are two kinds of public fairs: general interest fairs and special interest fairs.
  • Public relations. A communications tool that is used to promote the goodwill of the firm as a whole. It is the projection of the personality of the company, the management of reputation. Public relations is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain good relationships, mutual understanding, sympathy and goodwill with publics, audiences or stakeholders. It is those efforts that identify and close the gap between how the organisation is seen by its key publics and how it would like to be seen.
  • Publics or stakeholders. Besides customers and potential customers, groups of people that the company is not directly trying to sell products to (that is why these groups are sometimes called secondary target groups), but that are perceived as influencing opinions about the company.
  • Puffery. The use of hyperbole or exaggeration of attribute and benefit claims in advertising to promote a brand.
  • Pull advertisements. Messages shown to users as they are navigating WAP or wireless sites and properties.
  • Pulsing advertising schedule. A certain level of advertising takes place during the whole campaign period, but during particular periods higher advertising levels are used.
  • Purchase facilitation. Assuring buyers that there are no barriers hindering product or brand purchase.
  • Purchase intention. The intention of the buyer to purchase the brand or the product or take other buying-related actions (going to the store, asking for more information).
  • Push advertising. Messages that are proactively sent out to wireless users and devices like alerts, SMS messages or even voice calls.
  • QR-code. A black and white square on print advertisements (Quick Response code). The QR-code can be scanned by smart phones and provides quick and effortless access to the brand's website.
  • Rational advertising appeals. Advertisements that contain features, practical details and verifiable, factually relevant cues that can serve as evaluative criteria.
  • Reach goal of communication. How to reach the target groups in an effective and efficient way.
  • Readability analysis. Advertising test that checks whether the advertising copy is simple and easy to understand 'at first glance'.
  • Recall tests. The extent to which an individual recalls a new ad or a new execution amid existing ads is tested, e.g. the Portfolio test.
  • Receiver context of advertising. The situational circumstances in which a person is exposed to an advertisement (e.g. at home, in the company of friends, on the way to work, when in a bad mood, etc.).
  • Recognition test. A sample of ads is presented to a consumer, who is asked to indicate whether he or she recognises the ad or not.
  • Reinforcement model. According to this model, awareness leads to trial and trial leads to reinforcement. Product experience is the dominant variable in the model, and advertising is supposed to reinforce habits, frame experience and defend consumers' attitudes.
  • Relationship marketing. Brings quality, customer service and marketing into close alignment, leading to long-term and mutually beneficial customer relationships.
  • Resources costing budgeting. A budgeting method in which management decides what resources are needed (an extra press officer, or an event co-ordinator) and calculates the costs implied.
  • Retail advertising. When a retailer takes the initiative to advertise to consumers.
  • RFM-model. A direct marketing response scoring model in which, for all customers in a database, three behavioural response parameters are measured: Recency, the time elapsed since the last purchase; Frequency, the frequency with which a customer places an order; Monetary value, the average amount of money a customer spends per purchase.
  • Rich media ad. An Internet ad using animated content such as audio/video, Flash, Java, etc., to create special effects, interaction, or moving or floating ads.
  • Roadblocking. Placing the same ad across many channels at the same time.
  • Rossiter–Percy grid. A buying behaviour model that classifies buying decisions in four categories, based on the dimensions high–low involvement and fulfilling a transformational or informational buying motive.
  • Routinised response behaviour model. A model that assumes that a large number of product experiences can lead to routinised response behaviour, especially for low-involvement, frequently purchased products.
  • Sales force promotion. Sales promotion targeted at the sales force, offering them incentives to market the product well.
  • Sales promotions. Sales-stimulating campaigns, such as price cuts, coupons, loyalty programmes, competitions, free samples, etc.
  • Sales response models. Depict the relationship between the size of the communications budget and sales.
  • Sampling. Consumer promotion technique that consists of distributing small samples of a product, sometimes in a specially designed package free of charge or at a very low cost.
  • Savings cards. Consumer promotion techniques on the basis of which customers receive a discount provided they have bought a number of units of the brand during a specific period of time.
  • Search engine advertising (SEA). Internet advertising on large search engines such as Google, Yahoo!, Bing, etc., that is triggered by specific keywords and search terms and which appears alongside and sometimes above or below the search results.
  • Search engine optimisation (SEO). a number of techniques to improve the listing of a brand or a company in search engines.
  • Selective advertising. Campaigns that promote a specific brand.
  • Selective specialisation. A company chooses a number of segments that look attractive. There is no synergy between the segments, but every segment looks profitable.
  • Self-generated persuasion. The consumer is not persuaded by strong brand arguments, but by his or her own thoughts, arguments or imagined consequences. These thoughts go beyond the information offered in the ad. The consumer combines the information in the message with previous experience and knowledge, and tries to imagine him- or herself consuming the product and the consequences thereof.
  • Self-liquidators or self-liquidating premiums. Presents that can be obtained in exchange for a number of proofs of purchase, and an extra amount of money.
  • Self-reference criterion. Our unconscious tendency to refer everything to our own cultural values.
  • Self-regulation. A process in which the advertising industry regulates itself by establishing codes of practice or sets of guiding principles, the aim of which is ensuring legal, decent, honest and truthful advertising, prepared with a sense of social responsibility to the consumer and society and with proper respect for the rules of fair competition.
  • Share of voice. The ratio of own communications investments divided by the communications investments of all market players.
  • Shoskele. A floating Internet ad that moves over the browser in an animated way.
  • Signalling theory. Consumers take advertising repetition as a signal of the quality of a brand.
  • Skyscrapers. A thin and small banner ad, typically along the right side of a web page.
  • Slice-of-life advertising. An advertisement that features the product being used in a real-life setting, which usually involves solving a problem.
  • Slotting allowance. A one-time, upfront fee that is charged by retailers before they allow a new product on their shelves to cover the start-up costs of entering a new product into their system.
  • Social media. A collection of emerging technologies enabling social networking by offering Internet users the ability to collaborate, add, edit, share and tag content of different kinds (text, sound, video, images).
  • Social networking sites. Applications that enable users to connect on the Internet by creating personal profiles, inviting friends to have access to those profiles, sending e-mails and instant messages between each other. These personal profiles can include photos, video, audio files, blogs, links to websites, and in fact any type of information (e.g. Facebook, Pinterest).
  • Social TV. Given the popularity of social networks, people are frequently talking about TV shows at the same time as they are watching them.
  • Socially responsible marketing. Selling products that embody certain social ethical values, such as products free of child labour, produced in companies where trade unions are allowed, in decent social circumstances, and at fair wages.
  • Split-scan test. An advertising test procedure in which the television viewing behaviour of a panel of consumers is measured by means of a telemetric device. All members of
  • [[the panel also receive a store card. By means of a store card, the actual purchases of the panel members can be measured, and in that way the effectiveness of the different commercials can be assessed.
  • Sponsorship. An investment in cash or kind in an activity, in return for access to the exploitable commercial potential associated with this activity.
  • Stakeholders. See Publics.
  • Standardised campaign or globalised communication campaign. A campaign that is run in different countries, using the same concept, setting, theme, appeal and message, with the possible exception of translations.
  • Starch test. An advertising recognition post-test for print advertising in which participants are asked to indicate whether they have noticed an ad, associated it with a brand and read most of the text.
  • Stealth marketing. The use of marketing practices that fail to disclose or reveal the true relationship with the company that produces or sponsors the marketing message.
  • Stereotyping. An automatic perceptual bias enabling people to construct simplified images of reality.
  • Store atmospherics. The effort to design buying environments to produce specific emotional effects in the buyers that enhance their purchase probability.
  • Strategic advertising research. Research that is aimed at collecting information about the market environment, the market, the product and consumer behaviour, as preparation for developing an advertising campaign.
  • Subjective norm. The belief one holds regarding what different reference groups consider as socially desirable behaviour, weighted by the consumer's need or willingness to behave according to the norms of the particular reference group. The latter is referred to as social sensitivity.
  • Superiority of the pleasant hypothesis. Negative ad-evoked feelings, such as irritation, have a negative influence on ad- and brand-related responses.
  • Superstitials. Banner ads in the form of additional pop-up browser windows that are opened when a new web page is opened.
  • Synergy in marketing communications. Marketing mix instruments have to be designed in such a way that the effects of the tools are mutually reinforcing.
  • SWOT analysis. An internal analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the company or brand and an external analysis of opportunities and threats in the marketplace.
  • Talking head advertising. An advertisement in which the characters tell a story in their own words.
  • Tangible product. The core product is translated into product features, a certain level of quality, the available options, design and packaging.
  • Targeting. The selection of target groups to focus upon, on the basis of an analysis of market segment attractiveness and for which the company has relevant strengths.
  • Telemarketing. Any measurable activity using the telephone to help find, get, keep and develop customers.
  • Teleological approach (relativism). Ethical principle that focuses on consequences. Good or bad depends on what happens as a result of the action.
  • Teleprospecting. Searching for prospects by phone.
  • Telesales. Actively calling consumers or companies with the purpose of selling products or services.
  • Testimonial advertising. An advertisement that features ordinary people saying how good a product is.
  • Theatre test. An indirect advertising opinion test in a theatre setting in which participants are asked to make a brand choice before and after exposure to a tested advertisement.
  • Theme advertising. Attempts to build a reservoir of goodwill for a brand or a product.
  • Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). A model of buying behaviour that, besides attitudes and the subjective norm, also considers perceived behavioural control as a determinant of behaviour. This model is relevant to predict behaviours over which people have incomplete volitional control.
  • Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA). An extension of the Fishbein model. The model provides a link between attitude and behavioural intention. The latter is determined not only by attitudes, but also by the subjective norm (the influence of relevant others).
  • Think–feel dimension. The extent to which a decision is made on a cognitive or an affective basis.
  • Top-of-mind brand awareness (TOMA). the percentage of people for which a brand of a specific product category is the first one that comes to mind.
  • Top topicals. Newspaper ads referring to recent events.
  • Total reach of a medium vehicle. The number or percentage of people who are expected to be exposed to the advertiser's message in that medium vehicle during a specified period.
  • Tracking study. Advertising effectiveness study in which comparable (random) samples of consumers are asked a standardised set of questions at regular intervals. As a result, the position of a brand and competing products can be tracked over time, and effects of subsequent campaigns can be assessed.
  • Trade advertising. Advertising aimed at a company that buys products to resell them.
  • Trade fair. Exhibitions and trade shows open to people working in a certain field of activity or industry. It is a place where manufacturers and retailers of a certain product category or sector meet each other to talk about trade, to present and demonstrate their products and services, to exchange ideas and network, and actually to buy and sell products.
  • Trade mart. A hybrid kind of exhibition, i.e. half-exhibition, half-display, with a high frequency. Participants rent a permanent stand and aim to sell. Participants in trade marts have samples permanently on display.
  • Trade promotions. Sales promotions by manufacturers to persuade channel members to include the product in their mix, to give it appropriate shelf space and to assist in promoting the product to the end-consumer.
  • Trailer test (or coupon-stimulated purchasing test). Respondents are randomly recruited in an experimental and a control group. The experimental group is exposed to a new advertisement, while the control group is not. After shopping, the items purchased by the two groups are compared.
  • Transaction-based sponsorship. Cause-related marketing or point-of-purchase politics: a type of sponsorship in which the company invests a pre-specified amount of money in a 'good cause' every time a consumer buys one of the company's products.
  • Transformational buying motives. Positive buying motivations, such as sensory gratification, social approval or intellectual stimulation.
  • TV test. Ethical rule of conduct which implies that a manager should always ask if he or she would feel comfortable explaining his or her action on TV to the general public.
  • Twitter. A micro-blog and at the same time a free social network service. Twitter enables users to send and read users' updates known as tweets. These are text-based posts of a maximum of 140 characters that are displayed on the user's profile page and delivered to other users (called followers) who subscribe to them.
  • Two-factor model. An inverted-U relationship exists between the level of exposure to an advertising campaign, on the one hand, and advertising effectiveness (cognitive responses, attitudes, purchase), on the other. Wear-in and wear-out effects explain the nature of this relationship.
  • Unaided brand awareness. The percentage of consumers that can name a brand in a certain product category.
  • Uncertainty avoidance culture. The extent to which people feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity and have a need for structure and formal rules in their lives.
  • Underpositioning. A company fails to make a clear differentiation with competitors.
  • Unfair marketing communications. Acts or practices that cause or are likely to cause substantial injury to consumers, which are not reasonably avoidable by consumers themselves and not outweighed by countervailing benefits to consumers or competition. They may go beyond questions of fact and relate merely to public values, e.g. offend public policy as it has been established by statutes, are immoral, unethical, oppressive or unscrupulous, or cause substantial injury to consumers, competitors or other business.
  • Unique selling proposition (USP). A functional benefit used in marketing communications; usually functional superiority in the sense that the brand offers the best quality, the best service, the lowest price, the most advanced technology.
  • Useful reach of a medium vehicle. The number or percentage of people from the target group of a campaign who are expected to be exposed to the advertiser's message in that medium vehicle during a specified period.
  • Useful score. Advertising processing measure in which the percentage of the consumer sample that both recognised the ad and attributed it correctly to the brand advertised is measured.
  • Value marketing. A strategy in which a company links its activities to a philosophy of general societal interest. The company positions itself on the basis of a value system that is often not product-related.
  • Vertical trade fairs. Different industries present their goods and services to target groups belonging to one single field of activity.
  • Video-on-Demand (VoD). Services include the online retail and rental of audio-visual works, primarily feature films, audio-visual fiction, documentaries, educational programmes, cartoons, etc.
  • Viral marketing. A set of techniques that is used to spur brand users and lovers, game participants or advocate consumers among the target group to promote their favourite brand to friends and relatives. They are put to work to spread the word about the brand or product by using e-mail, SMS, 'tell or send to a friend' buttons or via different social media sites as Facebook, Google+, YouTube, review sites and influential blogs.
  • Virtual game worlds. Games that require their users to behave according to strict rules in the context of a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) (e.g. 'World of Warcraft').
  • Virtual social worlds. A group of virtual worlds allowing inhabitants to choose their behaviour freely and essentially live a virtual life similar to their real life. Again, virtual social world users appear in the form of avatars and interact in a 3-D virtual environment (e.g. Second Life).
  • Virtual worlds. Internet platforms that replicate a 3-D environment in which users can appear in the form of personalised avatars and interact with each other as they would in real life.
  • Warm advertising. An advertising appeal that consists of elements evoking mild, positive feelings such as love, friendship, cosiness, affection and empathy.
  • Wear-in. At low levels of exposure to advertising, consumers develop negative responses (e.g. counter-arguments) due to the novelty of the stimulus. After a few exposures, the reaction becomes more positive.
  • Wear-out. At high levels of exposures to advertising, consumers develop negative responses, due to boredom, irritation, etc.
  • Web 1.0. The World Wide Web as an information source with static websites.
  • Web 2.0 or social media (networks). A concept of the Web as a participation platform on which users participate and connect to each other using services as opposed to sites.
  • Weblogs, or blogs. Frequently updated personal web journals that allow owners to publish ideas and information.
  • Wireless advertising. See Mobile marketing.
  • World Wide Web (WWW). The interactive and graphical communications medium on the Internet. The Web is characterised by the use of hypertext mark-up language (HTML) that allows documents consisting of text, icons, sounds or images to be shared by different users, regardless of the computer operating system they use. The hyperlinks (text- or image-based) make it possible to navigate quickly through documents and pages by simple mouse-clicking.
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