Social Psychology 9e by Aronson, Wilson, Akert, Sommers

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Social Psychology 9e by Aronson, Wilson, Akert, Sommers is the 9th edition of the Social Psychology textbook authored by Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, Robin M. Akert, Samuel R. Sommers and published by Pearson Education, Inc. in 2016.

  • Accessibility. The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people's minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world.
  • Acquisition. The process by which people notice and pay attention to information in their environment.
  • Affect Blends. Facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion.
  • Affective Forecasting. The extent to which people can predict the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to future events.
  • Affective Forecasts. People's predictions about how they will feel in response to a future emotional event.
  • Affectively Based Attitude. An attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object.
  • Aggression. Intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person.
  • Altruism. The desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper.
  • Altruistic Personality. The qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations.
  • Analytic Thinking Style. A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures.
  • Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style. An attachment style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intimacy, resulting in higher-than-average levels of anxiety.
  • Applied Research. Studies designed to solve a particular social problem.
  • Archival Analysis. A form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines, and newspapers).
  • Attachment Styles. The expectations people develop about relationships with others based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants.
  • Attitude Accessibility. The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object.
  • Attitude Inoculation. Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position.
  • Attitudes. Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas.
  • Attribution Theory. A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior.
  • Automatic Thinking. Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless.
  • Availability Heuristic. A mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind.
  • Avoidant Attachment Style. An attachment style characterized by difficulty developing intimate relationships because previous attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed.
  • Base Rate. Information Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population.
  • Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist. The trade-off between internal and external validity in conducting research; it is very difficult to do one experiment that is both high in internal validity and generalizable to other situations and people.
  • Basic Research. Studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity.
  • Behaviorally Based Attitude. An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object.
  • Behaviorism. A school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behavior, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment.
  • Belief in a Just World. A form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people.
  • Belief Perseverance. The tendency to stick with an initial judgment even in the face of new information that should prompt us to reconsider.
  • Bias Blind Spot. The tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are.
  • Blaming the Victim. The tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, typically motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair place.
  • Bystander Effect. The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help.
  • Catharsis. The notion that "blowing off steam" -- by behaving aggressively or watching others do so -- relieves built-up anger and aggressive energy and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior.
  • Causal Theories. Theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., "absence makes the heart grow fonder").
  • Central Route to Persuasion. The case in which people have both the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments presented.
  • Classical Conditioning. The phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus.
  • Cognitive Dissonance. The discomfort that people feel when two cognitions (beliefs, attitudes) conflict, or when they behave in ways that are inconsistent with their conception of themselves.
  • Cognitively Based Attitude. An attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object.
  • Communal Relationships. Relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs.
  • Companionate Love. The feelings of intimacy and affection we have for someone that are not accompanied by passion or physiological arousal.
  • Comparison Level for Alternatives. People's expectations about the level of rewards and costs they would receive in an alternative relationship.
  • Comparison Level. People's expectations about the level of rewards and costs they are likely to receive in a particular relationship.
  • Conformity. A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people.
  • Consensus Information. Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does.
  • Consistency Information. Information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances.
  • Construal. The way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world.
  • Contingency Theory of Leadership. The idea that the effectiveness of a leader depends both on how task oriented or relationship oriented the leader is and on the amount of control the leader has over the group.
  • Controlled Thinking. Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful.
  • Coping Styles. The ways in which people react to threatening events.
  • Correlational Method. The technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed.
  • Correlation Coefficient. A statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another -- for example, how well you can predict people's weight from their height.
  • Counterattitudinal Advocacy. Stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude.
  • Counterfactual Thinking. Mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been.
  • Covariation Model. A theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether the behavior occurs.
  • Cover Story. A description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose and is used to maintain psychological realism.
  • Cross-Cultural Research. Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised.
  • Debriefing. Explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired.
  • Deception. Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire.
  • Decode. To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness.
  • Deindividuation. The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can't be identified (such as when they are in a crowd).
  • Dependent Variable. The variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesizes that the dependent variable will depend on the level of the independent variable.
  • Descriptive Norms. People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others.
  • Diffusion of Responsibility. The phenomenon wherein each bystander's sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases.
  • Discrimination. Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group solely because of his or her membership in that group.
  • Display Rules. Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display.
  • Distinctiveness Information. Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli.
  • Door-in-the-Face Technique. Social influence strategy in which first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request.
  • Downward Social Comparison. Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability.
  • Elaboration Likelihood Model. A model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics.
  • Emblems. Nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations, such as the OK sign.
  • Empathy. The ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and to experience events and emotions (e.g., joy and sadness) the way that person experiences them.
  • Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis. The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain.
  • Encode. To express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back.
  • Equity Theory. The idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced by both parties are roughly equal.
  • Ethnocentrism. The belief that one's own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to all others.
  • Ethnography. The method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have.
  • Evolutionary Psychology. The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection.
  • Evolutionary Theory. A concept developed by Charles Darwin to explain the ways in which animals adapt to their environments.
  • Exchange Relationships. Relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e., for an equal ratio of rewards and costs).
  • Experimental Method. The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people's responses).
  • Explicit Attitudes. Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report.
  • External Attribution. The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation.
  • External Justification. A reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment).
  • External Validity. The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people.
  • Extrinsic Motivation. The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting.
  • FALSE Memory Syndrome. Remembering a past traumatic experience that is objectively false but is nevertheless accepted by the person as true.
  • Fear-Arousing Communication. Persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears.
  • Field Experiments. Experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory.
  • Fight-or-Flight Response. Responding to stress by either attacking the source of the stress or fleeing from it.
  • Fixed Mind-Set. The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change.
  • Foot-in-the-Door Technique. Social influence strategy in which getting people to agree first to a small request makes them more likely to agree later to a second, larger request.
  • Frustration-Aggression Theory. The theory that frustration -- the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal -- increases the probability of an aggressive response.
  • Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors.
  • Gender Roles. Societal beliefs -- such as those conveyed by media and other sources -- regarding how men and women are expected to behave.
  • Gestalt Psychology. A school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people's minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object.
  • Great Person Theory. The idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation.
  • Group Cohesiveness. Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between them.
  • Group Polarization. The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of their members.
  • Groupthink. A kind of decision process in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner.
  • Group. Two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other.
  • Growth Mind-Set. The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow.
  • Halo Effect. A cognitive bias by which we tend to assume that an individual with one positive characteristic also possesses other (even unrelated) positive characteristics.
  • Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion. An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts or heuristics.
  • Hindsight Bias. The tendency for people to exaggerate, after knowing that something occurred, how much they could have predicted it before it occurred.
  • Holistic Thinking Style. A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan, and Korea).
  • Hostile Aggression. Aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury.
  • Hypocrisy Induction. The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior; the purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior.
  • Idiosyncrasy Credits. The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group without retribution.
  • Impact Bias. The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of one's emotional reactions to future negative events.
  • Implementation Intentions. People's specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal.
  • Implicit Association Test (IAT). A test thought to measure unconscious (implicit) prejudices according to the speed with which people can pair a target face (e.g., Black or White, old or young, Asian or White) with a positive or negative association (e.g., the words honest or evil).
  • Implicit Attitudes. Attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness.
  • Impression Management. The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen.
  • In-Group. The group with which an individual identifies as a member.
  • In-Group Bias. The tendency to favor members of one's own group and give them special preference over people who belong to other groups; the group can be temporary and trivial as well as significant.
  • Independent Variable. The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable.
  • Independent View of the Self. A way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people.
  • Informational Social Influence. Relying on other people as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is correct and can help us choose an appropriate course of action.
  • Informed Consent. Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance.
  • Ingratiation. The process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status.
  • Injunctive Norms. People's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others.
  • Institutional Discrimination. Practices that discriminate, legally or illegally, against a minority group by virtue of its ethnicity, gender, culture, age, sexual orientation, or other target of societal or company prejudice.
  • Institutional Review Board (IRB). A group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that reviews all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by the IRB before it is conducted.
  • Instrumental Aggression. Aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain.
  • Insufficient Punishment. The dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object.
  • Integrative Solution. A solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues, with each side conceding the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side.
  • Interdependence. The situation that exists when two or more groups need to depend on one another to accomplish a goal that is important to each of them.
  • Interdependent View of the Self. A way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people, recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others.
  • Interjudge Reliability. The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, distorted impressions of one individual.
  • Internal-External Locus of Control. The tendency to believe that things happen because we control them versus believing that good and bad outcomes are out of our control.
  • Internal Attribution. The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality.
  • Internal Justification. The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one's attitude or behavior).
  • Internal Validity. Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions.
  • Intrinsic Motivation. The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures.
  • Introspection. The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives.
  • Investment Model. The theory that people's commitment to a relationship depends not only on their satisfaction with the relationship, but also on how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by ending it.
  • Jigsaw Classroom. A classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, multiethnic groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class.
  • Judgmental Heuristics. Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently.
  • Justification of Effort. The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain.
  • Kin Selection. The idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection.
  • Lowballing. An unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price.
  • Mere Exposure Effect. The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it.
  • Meta-Analysis. A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable.
  • Minority Influence. The case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority.
  • Misattribution of Arousal. The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do.
  • Narcissism. The combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others.
  • Natural Selection. The process by which heritable traits that promote survival in a particular environment are passed along to future generations; organisms with those traits are more likely to produce offspring.
  • Negotiation. A form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree.
  • Nonverbal Communication. The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and gaze.
  • Normative Conformity. The tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group's expectations and gain acceptance.
  • Normative Social Influence. Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group's beliefs and behaviors but do not always privately accept them.
  • Norm of Reciprocity. The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future.
  • Observational Method. The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior.
  • Operant Conditioning. The phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment.
  • Out-Group. Any group with which an individual does not identify.
  • Out-Group Homogeneity. The perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogeneous) than they really are, as well as more similar than members of the in-group are.
  • Overconfidence Barrier. The fact that people usually have too much confidence in the accuracy of their judgments.
  • Overjustification Effect. The tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons.
  • Own-Race Bias. The tendency for people to be better at recognizing faces of their own race than those of other races.
  • Passionate Love. An intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal.
  • Perceived Control. The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes.
  • Perceptual Salience. The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention.
  • Performance-Contingent Rewards. Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task.
  • Peripheral Route to Persuasion. The case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by more superficial cues.
  • Persuasive Communication. A message advocating a particular side of an issue.
  • Pluralistic Ignorance. The case in which people think that everyone else is interpreting a situation in a certain way, when in fact they are not.
  • Postdecision Dissonance. Dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives.
  • Prejudice. A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group based solely on their membership in that group; it contains cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components.
  • Primacy Effect. When it comes to forming impressions, the first traits we perceive in others influence how we view information that we learn about them later.
  • Priming. The process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept.
  • Private Acceptance. Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right.
  • Probability Level (p-value). A number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psychology, is to consider results significant (trustworthy) if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and not the independent variables studied.
  • Process Loss. Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving.
  • Propaganda. A deliberate, systematic attempt to advance a cause by manipulating mass attitudes and behaviors, often through misleading or emotionally charged information.
  • Propinquity Effect. The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends.
  • Prosocial Behavior. Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person.
  • Psychological Realism. The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life.
  • Public Compliance. Conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying.
  • Random Assignment to Condition. A process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants' personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions.
  • Random Selection. A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
  • Reactance Theory. The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of resistance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the prohibited behavior.
  • Realistic Conflict Theory. The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination.
  • Reasons-Generated Attitude Change. Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize.
  • Reconstructive Memory. The process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event occurred.
  • Recovered Memories. Recollections of a past event, such as sexual abuse, that have been forgotten or repressed.
  • Relationship-Oriented Leaders. Leaders who are concerned more with workers' feelings and relationships.
  • Replications. Repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings.
  • Representativeness Heuristic. A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case.
  • Resilience. Mild, transient reactions to stressful events, followed by a quick return to normal, healthy functioning.
  • Retrieval. The process by which people recall information stored in their memories.
  • Schemas. Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember.
  • Sexual Scripts. Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person's gender, age, religion, social status, and peer group.
  • Secure Attachment Style. An attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well liked.
  • Self-Affirmation. In the context of dissonance theory, a way of reducing dissonance by reminding oneself of one or more of one's positive attributes.
  • Self-Awareness Theory. The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values.
  • Self-Concept. The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes.
  • Self-Esteem. People's evaluations of their own self-worth -- that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent.
  • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. An expectation of one's own or another person's behavior that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about.
  • Self-Handicapping. The strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves.
  • Self-Perception Theory. The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs.
  • Self-Persuasion. A long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification.
  • Self-Serving Attributions. Explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors.
  • Social-Cognitive Learning Theory. The theory that people learn social behavior (e.g., aggression or altruism) in large part through observation and imitation of others and by cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs.
  • Social Cognition. How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions.
  • Social Comparison Theory. The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people.
  • Social Dilemma. A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone.
  • Social Exchange Theory. The idea that people's feelings about a relationship depend on their perceptions of its rewards and costs, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances for having a better relationship with someone else.
  • Social Facilitation. When people are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated, the tendency to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks.
  • Social Identity . The part of a person's self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nation, religious or political group, occupation, or other social affiliation.
  • Social Impact Theory. The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group's importance, immediacy, and the number of people in the group.
  • Social Influence. The effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior.
  • Social Loafing. When people are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated, the tendency to perform worse on simple or unimportant tasks but better on complex or important tasks.
  • Social Norms. The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members.
  • Social Perception. The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people.
  • Social Psychology. The scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people.
  • Social Roles. Shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave.
  • Social Support. The perception that others are responsive and receptive to one's needs.
  • Social Tuning. The process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes.
  • Source Monitoring. The process whereby people try to identify the source of their memories.
  • Stereotype Threat. The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype.
  • Stereotype. A generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.
  • Storage. The process by which people maintain in memory information they have acquired from the environment.
  • Story Model. The theory that jurors try to fit the evidence they hear at trial into a coherent story, and ultimately reach a verdict that best fits the story they have created.
  • Stress. The negative feelings and beliefs that arise whenever people feel unable to cope with demands from their environment.
  • Subliminal Messages. Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence judgments, attitudes, and behaviors.
  • Surveys. Research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behavior.
  • Task-Contingent Rewards. Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done.
  • Task-Oriented Leaders. Leaders who are concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships.
  • Tend-and-Befriend Response. Responding to stress with nurturing activities designed to protect oneself and one's offspring (tending) and creating social networks that provide protection from threats (befriending).
  • Terror Management Theory. The theory that holds that self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality.
  • Theory of Planned Behavior. The idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.
  • Thin-Slicing. Drawing meaningful conclusions about another person's personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behavior.
  • Tit-for-Tat Strategy. A means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial.
  • Transactional Leaders. Leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them.
  • Transactive Memory. The combined memory of a group that is more efficient than the memory of the individual members.
  • Transformational Leaders. Leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals.
  • Two-Factor Theory of Emotion. The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it.
  • Two-Step Attribution Process. Analyzing another person's behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution.
  • Upward Social Comparison. Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability.
  • Urban Overload Hypothesis. The theory that people living in cities are constantly bombarded with stimulation and that they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it.
  • Weapons Effect. The increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon.
  • Yale Attitude Change Approach. The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience.
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