Teaching Strategies 9e by Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan, Brown

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Teaching Strategies 9e by Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan, Brown is the 9th edition of the Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Effective Instruction textbook authored by Donald C. Orlich, Washington State University, Robert J. Harder, Washington State University, Richard C. Callahan, Callahan Associates, Michael S. Trevisan, Washington State University, Abbie H. Brown, East Carolina University, and published by Wadsworth, Cengage Learning in 2010.

  • Accountability. The application of a business model to schooling with emphasis on high-stakes testing.
  • Acculturation. The combination of processes that introduce a child to his or her culture, including customs and social patterns.
  • Active learning. Any of a wide range of teaching strategies that engage the learner in the instruction taking place, such as working on problems in small groups, as opposed to passive methods such as seat work or listening to a lecture.
  • Advance organizer. A frame of reference for a lesson, such as a chart, study guide, list, or graph, that presents the main facts, concepts, or generalizations to be learned.
  • Affective domain. The area of learning that encompasses ethical, emotional, attitudinal, and social knowledge.
  • Algorithm. A special method of solving a specific problem; for example, a formula.
  • Alternatives. The different possible responses to a multiple-choice test question.
  • Analysis. The process of discovering relationships, interactions, and causality among ideas, concepts, and situations.
  • Analytic scoring. The assessment of student performance by means of a rating system.
  • Anecdotal records. Notes written objectively on a periodic basis to track student performance, which may include checklists, student self-reports, and teacher observations.
  • Application. The process of employing abstract ideas and concepts in real-world situations, such as hands-on learning and problem solving.
  • Assertive discipline. A structured approach designed to assist teachers in running an organized, teacherin-charge classroom environment, including a discipline plan, classroom rules, positive recognition, and consequences.
  • Assessment. The process of evaluating student performance using a variety of measurements, such as tests, observations, ratings, and portfolios.
  • Assistive technology. Various items of equipment designed to help students with special needs achieve at a higher level.
  • Asynchronous learning. Learning or responses that are usually associated with computer-aided instruction but do not occur within a structured class period.
  • Awareness. The ability of a teacher to recognize student needs and demands and adjust the classroom environment to meet them.
  • Behavior modification. The process of changing behavior by rewarding desired actions and ignoring or punishing undesired actions.
  • Behavioral perspective. An educational approach that stresses changing student actions by rewarding and reinforcing desired actions and outcomes.
  • Bilingual education. The teaching of students in both their first and their second language (often Spanish and English) simultaneously.
  • Blog. A truncated term for Web log, usually set up by individuals.
  • Bloom's taxonomy. A classification system for cognitive educational objectives.
  • Brainstorming. A discussion process in which the leader presents a topic or problem and solicits open-ended ideas about it from all group members.
  • Character development. An aspect of schooling that includes discussion of ethical issues and moral dilemmas, with the goal of developing characteristics such as trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, and citizenship.
  • Checklist. List-format assessment tools used by a teacher or student to document work completed or skills learned.
  • Classroom clarifier. The role the teacher takes during inquiry learning to guide students toward developing logical thinking skills.
  • Classroom management. The methods of organization, disciplinary procedures, and routines established by the teacher to ensure positive student behaviors that are conducive to learning and social interaction.
  • Cognitive domain. The area of learning encompassing intellectual aspects, such as information processing, memorization, and thinking skills.
  • Cognitive psychology. An area of psychology that focues on inner mental processes rather than behavior.
  • Cohesion. The tendency of a group to stick together and support all members.
  • Completion items. Test items that contain an incomplete statement and require the student to fill in a missing word, phrase, or symbol.
  • Concept. An expression or abstraction based on observations of a group of stimuli, facts, or objects having common characteristics; for example, the concept "animal" encompasses and describes dogs, cats, and elephants.
  • Concept analysis. The process of identifying the components of a concept to be taught and deciding whether to teach it inductively (from underlying specific examples to broader generalizations) or deductively (from broader generalizations to underlying specific examples).
  • Concept review questioning technique. A teaching strategy that consists of inserting review questions throughout the recitation period.
  • Concrete operational stage. A stage of cognitive development (ages 8–11) in which children learn best through visual and hands-on activities.
  • Conditions. The specification of what is needed to accomplish an objective.
  • Content. The subject matter, substance, or materials of a lesson, consisting of facts, concepts, and generalizations.
  • Content differentiation. The process of isolating each fact, concept, or generalization within a hierarchy of knowledge so that it can be learned independently.
  • Content hierarchy. A sequence of learning matter that may be closely interrelated and requires a series of definite steps to achieve.
  • Convergent questions. Questions that require students to give factual or specific answers.
  • Cooperative learning. Learning based on a smallgroup approach to teaching, in which students are held accountable for both individual and group achievement.
  • Correlation. A relationship between two factors, but not necessarily one of cause and effect.
  • Criteria. Characteristics used to categorize or rate ideas or products.
  • Criterion measure. The third element of a performance objective, which defines the minimum level of acceptable performance.
  • Curriculum alignment. The process of making certain that the curriculum is organized and coordinated with what is tested.
  • Curriculum guides. Sets of goals and objectives published by a school district to guide teachers in developing instruction by stating what students should learn at each grade level and in each content area.
  • Cyber-bullying. The use of information and communication technologies by an individual or group to engage in deliberate, repeated, hostile behavior that is intended to harm others.
  • Declarative knowledge. Knowledge of content (what), such as facts, definitions, and concepts, as opposed to knowledge of processes (how). Also called content knowledge.
  • Deductive reasoning. The process of discovering specific examples or facts from a generalizing framework; a thinking process that moves from the general to the specific.
  • Definition. The presenting of what something means.
  • Democratic discipline. A classroom management approach that treats diverse students equally and expects them to take responsibility for their own behavior.
  • Dependent skills. Those items of information that are typically taught in a carefully structured or linear manner. For example, one teaches decimals before introducing percents.
  • Desist strategy. Discipline technique in which the teacher systematically communicates his or her desire for a student to stop a particular behavior, using either private or public communication.
  • Diagnostic test. Assessment tool that pinpoints students' strengths and weaknesses, specifically what students need to learn in designated fields.
  • Differentiated instruction. A means of devising or creating multiple paths to achieve learning goals or objectives (see multi-methodology).
  • Direct instruction. Teacher-initiated whole-class learning.
  • Discipline. The setting of behavioral parameters for the classroom, both by the teacher alone and in response to teacher-student interactions and situational factors.
  • Discovery learning. An inquiry process in which learners pose questions and seek explanations.
  • Discussions. Interactive learning processes involving the exchange of information, perceptions, and ideas in a small group.
  • Distractors. The incorrect alternative answers on a multiple-choice test.
  • Divergent questions. Questions that encourage students to give complex, creative, longer answers.
  • Eclectic. Made up of a mix of varied approaches or teaching models.
  • Effect size. A statistical notation of comparing independent samples to show evidence of the impact an educational treatment or intervention has on student achievement.
  • Efficacy. Effectiveness; the ability to reach a goal or complete a task.
  • Empirical epistemology. The process of knowing or learning through observation or experimentation.
  • Enabling skills. Facts, concepts, and processes students must be taught before they can learn more complex facts, concepts, and processes.
  • Entry skills. The knowledge and perceptions students possess at the beginning of a given lesson.
  • Equity. A moral rationale that all children should be given the same opportunities to succeed in school.
  • Evaluation. The process of making judgments and supporting one's viewpoints with specific criteria, facts, and values. In education, determining the effectiveness of a lesson or unit in terms of student outcomes.
  • Evaluative criteria. Parameters for questioning that ask students to make a choice about where they stand on a given issue or question.
  • Evaluative question. Question that asks students to make a personal judgment and then defend their position with criteria that support the position taken.
  • Example. A concrete or specific form of a more abstract concept.
  • Exceptionality. A condition in which a student qualifies for special services by virtue of his or her physical, cognitive, or emotional characteristics and abilities.
  • Experience. The totality of the events and activities in which a student has participated as part of planned learning processes.
  • Extrinsic motivation. Desire to perform based on the reward provided for engaging in an activity.
  • Facilitator. The supportive role a teacher takes by giving students the skills, materials, and opportunities they need to direct their own learning experiences.
  • Fact. The most fundamental piece of information, which is singular in occurrence, occurs or exists in the present time, does not help the learner predict other facts, and is acquired solely through the process of observation.
  • Feedback. Information that students can use to improve their performance.
  • Formal operations stage. A stage of cognitive development (ages 11–15 and above) in which adolescents develop knowledge through systematic reasoning.
  • Formative assessment. A type of classroom assessment devoted entirely to the enhancement of student learning and achievement via specific feedback.
  • Framing. The technique of asking a question very precisely, pausing, then calling on a student.
  • General instructional objectives. Statements of what is to be learned that are broad and encompassing.
  • Generalization. An inferential statement that expresses relationships between concepts and has predictive value.
  • Goals. The broad, general outcomes students should reach as the result of a learning experience, lesson, or unit of study; for example, "Students will learn to appreciate and interpret drama."
  • Graphic organizers. Pictures, outlines, sketches, or some pictorial display that help the learner to obtain a quick mental perception or image of the topic.
  • Guided inductive inquiry. A learning process in which the teacher provides specific facts or ideas, from which students make their own generalizations.
  • Halo effect. The tendency of a teacher to assess a student's later performance based on the quality of earlier performance rather than being totally objective.
  • Hemisphericity. The study of where in the brain -- in the left hemisphere or the right hemisphere -- different types of mental functions occur.
  • Heuristics. Rules of thumb used to find solutions.
  • Higher-level thinking. A multistage construction of meaning that employs analysis and synthesis. Also called critical thinking.
  • High-stakes tests. Tests that are administered to students to determine some prescribed level of competence and in which penalties or rewards are provided to students or teachers.
  • Holistic instructional view. A model for instructional planning that considers many social and educational factors simultaneously.
  • Holistic scoring. The assessment of a student's work in its entirety rather than through judgment of specific parts.
  • Humanistic orientation. An outlook that views all students as unique individuals deserving acceptance and respect.
  • Idiosyncrasies. Teacher behaviors and habits that interfere with effective classroom interaction.
  • Imposed-discipline systems. Approaches to discipline in which the teacher dictates appropriate classroom behaviors and consequences for misbehavior.
  • Inclusion. A commitment to provide maximum learning experiences for all students, including those with special cognitive, affective, or psychomotor needs, in regular classrooms. See also mainstreaming.
  • Inclusive classroom. A classroom in which any learner with a disability is educated alongside students without disabilities.
  • Independent skills. Learning that can be taught without any prerequisite skills.
  • Independent study. Situation in which teachers allow students options of what to study and where the work is done.
  • Individual education plan (IEP). An agreement between a student with special learning needs and his or her classroom teachers, special education staff, and parents that outlines educational goals, procedures, and expected outcomes.
  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Federal act stating that all children with disabilities must have access to a free and appropriate public education.
  • Induction. The process of analyzing specific ideas to form more general concepts.
  • Inductive inquiry. The process of inferring generalizations from a set of specific ideas or facts.
  • Inductive reasoning. The process of studying examples or facts in order to develop generalizations or concepts; a thinking process that moves from the specific to the general.
  • Information processing. A means used to learn and remember knowledge.
  • Information-processing psychology. A branch of psychology that views learning as an interactive process between learners and their environment.
  • Inquiry discussion group. A specific kind of small group in which students develop questioning and problem-solving skills through a process of discovery and analysis.
  • Inquiry process. An investigative learning process that includes skills such as classifying, predicting, and experimenting.
  • Inquiry teaching. An investigative process of learning in which students are asked to pose questions, analyze data, and develop conclusions or generalizations.
  • Instructional equity. The provision of equal learning opportunities to students of both genders and from diverse backgrounds and cultures.
  • Instructional model. A detailed organizational scheme of how something is used.
  • Integration. The third step in the advance organizer model, in which students see how main concepts and underlying facts are related (vertical integration) or how underlying facts are similar or different (horizontal integration).
  • Interdisciplinary thematic unit. A unit of instruction that incorporates various content areas while covering an overall topic or theme, such as "Dinosaurs" or "Seeds."
  • Internalize. To make something part of one's unconscious, automatic learning processes.
  • Interpersonal. Occurring between people.
  • Interpretation. Giving meaning to a new concept by relating it to another, known concept.
  • Interpretive exercise. A means of assessment in which students analyze data, charts, maps, or written passages, using higher-level thinking skills.
  • Intrapersonal. Occurring within an individual.
  • Intrinsic motivation. An incentive, such as pride, selfesteem, and the desire to learn, that comes from within the student.
  • Kaplan matrix. A curriculum planning chart that includes the different levels of thinking in Bloom's taxonomy.
  • Knowledge. Recognition and recall of facts and explicitly stated concepts.
  • Learned helplessness. A state of being in which students quit trying because they have repeatedly had their efforts neglected.
  • Learning activities. Hands-on, interactive classroom experiences.
  • Learning community. The concept of a school as a social unit that supports all members -- students, teachers, administrators, staff, and parents.
  • Learning deficits. Knowledge gaps that students must fill before they begin learning new concepts.
  • Learning modality. A way of gaining knowledge or expression through one of the senses -- for example, auditory, tactile, visual, or kinesthetic.
  • Learning style. The set of cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that a learner exhibits as he or she interacts in the classroom environment and determines how he or she will solve problems. Also called learning preference.
  • Least restrictive environment. The classroom setting that is as close to the "regular" classroom as possible and still provides the learning opportunities needed to address a student's special needs.
  • Lesson. A piece of a unit, in which a given set of objectives or concepts is taught.
  • Lesson plan. The specification of what is to be done during class periods.
  • Listserv. A term referring to e-mail lists.
  • Mainstreaming. Placing and serving children with special cognitive, behavioral, or psychomotor needs in regular classrooms. See also inclusion.
  • Maslow's hierarchy of needs. A theory that an individual's behavior at any time is determined by his or her needs, ranging from basic physiological needs such as hunger and thirst to the highest needs of self-actualization and transcendence.
  • Master teacher. A teacher who possesses much experience and expertise and may serve as a role model or mentor for other teachers.
  • Matching exercises. Test items that require students to match words or concepts in one column to statements listed in another column; for example, pairing a word with its definition.
  • Measurement. The process of assigning numerical achievement indicators to student performance.
  • Metacognition. Conscious awareness of one's own thinking and learning process.
  • Metaphor. A figure of speech describing something with implied terms.
  • Mnemonics. A strategy for remembering facts by using a device, such as having the first letter of each fact represent a word or sentence.
  • Motivation. The desire or incentive to learn something or to behave in a given way.
  • Multiculturalism. The practice of including and honoring diverse cultures within school curricula and instruction.
  • Multi-methodology. The teaching practice of using a wide variety of techniques during lessons so that every student will benefit from at least one mode of every presentation.
  • Multiple-choice item. Test item that contains a question and asks students to choose an answer from a list of provided alternatives.
  • Multiple intelligences. The concept that intelligence does not take just one form but exists in eight facets: verbal/linguistic, bodily/kinesthetic, intrapersonal, logical/mathematical, musical/rhythmic, visual/spatial, interpersonal, and naturalistic.
  • Multiple-response questions. An instructional technique in which the teacher asks multiple students to respond to a single question, thus encouraging divergent thinking.
  • Negative interdependence. A management system that encourages students to work against one another in competition for academic resources and recognition.
  • Norm. An unwritten behavioral rule, pattern, or habit accepted by a particular culture or group of people.
  • Norm-referenced standardized test. See standardized test.
  • Objective items. Test items that have a single best or right answer.
  • Objectives. The specific steps that must be achieved to realize a broader goal.
  • Online virtual reality. Computer-based threedimensional simulations.
  • Outcome. A description of some product or other tangible evidence that learning has occurred.
  • Performance. An active demonstration used to assess student learning, such as oral presentations, musical and dramatic performances, and kinesthetic activities.
  • Performance objective. A specific, observable outcome students should reach as the result of a learning experience or lesson; for example, "After reading the play, students will write an essay naming and describing five characters." Also called performance statement.
  • Physical diversity. The variety of individuals' physical traits, such as height, weight, appearance, and physical ability.
  • Planning. The process of choosing instructional goals, content, materials, and activities prior to teaching.
  • Pluralism. The idea that a society should reflect the diverse mix of racial and other groups of which it is composed.
  • Portfolio. A collection of student work that can be used to demonstrate student effort and progress toward particular learning objectives.
  • Positive interdependence. A management system that encourages students to work together, with the assumption that the success of each student enhances the quality of learning for all students.
  • Power. The influence teachers have over students by virtue of their age, authority, role, or physical strength.
  • Preoperational stage. A early stage of cognitive development (ages 2–8) in which children learn through intuition, experience, and concepts.
  • Prerequisite skills. The skills or knowledge students must have before they begin a new learning experience.
  • Pretest. An assessment given before the start of instruction to determine students' entry skills.
  • Problem. A stimulus that requires action to solve.
  • Problem-based learning. Technique in which questions are posed for students to solve.
  • Problem solving. An inquiry learning process in which students seek answers to a question that is relevant to themselves and their culture.
  • Procedural knowledge. Knowledge of processes (how), as opposed to knowledge of content (what). Also called process knowledge.
  • Process objectives. Statements that focus on the way students learn (how) rather than the specific outcomes of learning (what).
  • Products. Tangible responses to class assignments, such as book reviews, term papers, or science fair posters.
  • Programmed instruction. A teaching method in which skills are presented in small segments, with immediate feedback and continual practice.
  • Progressive differentiation. The second step in the advance organizer model, which identifies the basic facts, details, and concepts underlying a main concept or generalization.
  • Psychomotor domain. The area of learning encompassing physical movement, including gross and fine motor skills and coordination.
  • Rationale. A reason or purpose.
  • Readiness. The willingness and ability of a student to begin learning.
  • Reality therapy. An approach to discipline in which individuals take responsibility for solving their own problems and begin to reshape their own behaviors to meet selected needs without any threats or implied punishments.
  • Reciprocal teaching. A cooperative learning model used to improve reading, in which students play the teacher's role.
  • Recitation. A learning technique in which the teacher calls on a different student to answer each factual or knowledge-based question, thus limiting students to one "correct" response.
  • Reflection. An active mental process that teachers use consistently as they interact with students and the curriculum, including mental rehearsal prior to teaching, careful consideration of instructional options, anticipation of classroom problems, and quick daily evaluations of which methods worked and did not work.
  • Reflective questions. Questions requiring students to develop higher-order thinking skills. A reflective question attempts to elicit motives, inferences, speculations, impact, and contemplation.
  • Regulatory agency. An office or board that sets standards, rules, and regulations.
  • Reinforcement. A system of rewards that encourages students to repeat positive behaviors.
  • Reinforcer. A type of stimulus that has a good chance of increasing a desired behavior.
  • Reliability. The degree to which a test consistently measures a given attribute.
  • Response to intervention. Known as RTI, this is a three-tiered multilevel approach of helping all children achieve, including those with learning difficulties or in need of special services.
  • Ripple effect. The negative effects felt by all class members when a teacher responds negatively to a student.
  • Role. An assigned set of responsibilities given to a student as a member of a group; for example, group leader, group recorder, group timekeeper, group evaluator.
  • Role playing. A learning process in which students act out or simulate a real-life situation.
  • Routines. Daily organizational tasks, such as taking attendance and checking papers, that must be part of a classroom time management plan.
  • Rubrics. Examples of different types, models, illustrations, or levels of possible responses that are used as guidelines for assessing student work.
  • Schema. A mental scaffold for learning, made up of previously learned concepts to which new concepts are attached.
  • Schema theory. An assumption that learners have internal, cognitive frameworks into which they fit new knowledge, concepts, and experiences.
  • School culture. The environment of a school, including its values, management systems, communication styles, and interpersonal relationships.
  • School ethos. The tone of the interactions within a school's environment.
  • Self-discipline. A classroom management system that emphasizes student goal setting, individual responsibility, and self-monitoring.
  • Sensorimotor stage. A period of cognitive development (ages 0–2) during which children learn through sensations and movement.
  • Sequencing. The process of organizing instruction by placing curricula or learning tasks in order.
  • Sex-role stereotyping. Making assumptions about students' abilities based on their gender.
  • Short-answer items. Test items that pose a question and require students to give a brief, two- to threesentence response.
  • Simulation. An artificial setting or situation that parallels a real-world setting or situation and allows students to practice problem-solving skills.
  • Small group. Purposefully constructed set of four to eight students who work together to learn.
  • Small-group discussions. Verbal exchanges of ideas and information in groups of four to eight students.
  • Social capital. The sum of interpersonal relationships that provide support or encouragement.
  • Standardized test. A nationally normed test that compares a student's performance to that of other students across the nation (if norm referenced) or to expected levels of achievement (if criterion referenced).
  • Standards. Criteria for what knowledge and learning processes students should be taught in a given subject area, or how teachers should be trained to perform.
  • Stem. The part of a multiple-choice test item that poses the question or problem.
  • Strategic learning. Student development of critical thinking skills that accelerate learning.
  • Student-initiated learning. An instructional technique in which students decide the content, means, and pace of the learning process.
  • Summative assessment. A manner of making evaluative judgments and certifying completion of projects, classes, and programs, most often using a letter grade.
  • Synergism. The increased energy created when individual elements work together as a whole, smoothfunctioning, creative system.
  • Synthesis. A process of creatively combining facts, concepts, and learning processes into new knowledge.
  • Task analysis model. The process of subdividing the content, concepts, or processes of a lesson into smaller, sequential steps that begin with the least complex and progress to the most complex.
  • Task group. A small group of students who work together to complete a particular assignment or job.
  • Taxonomy. A set of standards for classifying ideas or objects into hierarchical categories; for example, Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive skills.
  • Test. An assessment instrument that requires students to answer questions to demonstrate learning.
  • Thinking. A complex act comprising attitudes, knowledge, and skills that allows the individual to shape his or her environment more effectively than by intuition alone.
  • Topics. Various subjects used by teachers to help organize their lesson plans.
  • Transfer of learning. The application of knowledge or behaviors learned in one setting to a new situation.
  • Translation. A thinking skill in which one form of expression is changed into another form.
  • True-false question. A test item that requires students to determine whether a given statement is correct or not.
  • Tutorial discussion group. A group of two to four students being taught skills not mastered in largegroup class instruction.
  • Unguided inductive inquiry. A learning process in which students discover specific facts or ideas by themselves and then make their own generalizations based on what they have learned.
  • Unit. A block of lessons grouped together based on related skills, concepts, or themes.
  • Unit plan. A detailed plan for providing instruction on a skill, concept, or theme.
  • Universal design. The attempt to provide instruction that covers the broadest range of student learning modalities.
  • Validity. The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
  • Virtual reality. A computer-generated environment designed to create the illusion of a real setting or situation.
  • Wait time 1. The time between when a teacher poses a question and then calls on a student to answer it.
  • Wait time 2. A silent period that occurs after a student responds to a teacher's question.
  • Wiki. Informational Web page that can be easily modified by users. (Wiki comes from the Hawaiian word for "fast.")
  • Zone of proximal development. The difference between the intellectual level a child can reach on his or her own and the level that can be reached with expert assistance.
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