Organizational Behavior and Management 10e by Ivancevich, Konopaske, Matteson

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Organizational Behavior and Management 10e by Ivancevich, Konopaske, Matteson is the 10th edition of the textbook authored by:

  • John M. Ivancevich, Hugh Roy and Lillie Cranz Cullen Chair and Professor of Organizational Behavior and Management, C. T. Bauer College of Business, University of Houston,
  • Robert Konopaske, Associate Professor of Management, McCoy College of Business Administration, Texas State University, and
  • Michael T. Matteson, Professor Emeritus Organizational Behavior and Management, C. T. Bauer College of Business, University of Houston.

The textbook is published by McGraw-Hill/Irwin, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, NY in 2014.

  • Ability. A person's talent to perform a mental or physical task.
  • Active listening. When a receiver uses effective verbal and nonverbal communication to understand and relate to a communicator.
  • Adaptiveness. A criterion of effectiveness that refers to the ability of the organization to respond to change that is induced by either internal or external stimuli. An equivalent term is flexibility, although adaptiveness connotes an intermediate time frame, whereas flexibility ordinarily is used in a short-run sense.
  • Affect. The emotional component of an attitude; often learned from parents, teachers, and peer group members.
  • Affirmative action. The task of developing and implementing a program and process to achieve equality of opportunity in an organization.
  • Aggression. In the work setting, this is behavior that brings harm to others with whom the aggressor works or has worked.
  • Agreeableness . One of the Big Five personality dimensions; it is the tendency to be courteous, forgiving, tolerant, trusting, and softhearted.
  • Alternative dispute resolution. The process of resolving conflicts, disputes, and problems through third-party interventions. Usually this process excludes lawyers.
  • Appreciative inquiry. A method of focusing on positive or potential opportunities. An approach that asks questions and requires answers in an attempt to seize and improve upon an organization's potential.
  • Attitudes. Mental states of readiness for need arousal.
  • Attraction-selection-attrition framework (ASA framework). The concept that attraction to an organization, selection by it, and attrition from it result in particular kinds of people being in the organization. These people, in turn, determine organizational behavior.
  • Attribution theory. A process by which individuals attempt to explain the reasons for events.
  • Authority. The ability to influence others based on the perceived power of one's position and role within an organization.
  • Banking time off. A reward practice of allowing employees to build up time-off credits for such things as good performance or attendance. The employees then receive the time off in addition to the regular vacation time granted by the organization because of seniority.
  • Baseline. The period of time before a change is introduced.
  • Behavior. Anything a person does, such as talking, walking, thinking, or daydreaming.
  • Behavior modification. An approach to motivation that uses the principles of operant conditioning.
  • Benchmarking. The process in which organizations monitor and adapt the best practices of their competitors in order to make continuous improvements.
  • Big Five personality model. A model of personality that suggests human personality is comprised of five central dimensions: extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.
  • Boundaryless organization. A firm in which chains of command are eliminated, spans of control are unlimited, and rigid departments are replaced with empowered teams.
  • Boundary-spanning role. The role of an individual who must relate to two different systems, usually an organization and some part of its environment.
  • Bounded rationality approach. This approach assumes that decision making is not a perfectly rational process, but rather one that is fraught with constraints and limitations. Though not optimal, decisions are thought to be satisfactory and acceptable.
  • Brainstorming. The generation of ideas in a group through noncritical discussion.
  • Broadbanding. A pay system that reduces the actual number of pay grades to a relatively few broadly based pay grades. Places an emphasis on titles, grades, and job descriptions.
  • Bullying. Deliberate or unconscious repeated actions that are directed at another worker to cause humiliation or distress.
  • Burnout. A psychological process brought about by unrelieved work stress, resulting in emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feelings of decreased accomplishment.
  • Business process reengineering. Creating radical changes in processes, systems, and/or structures that meet customer needs efficiently and are economically sound.
  • Case study. A detailed analysis and examination of a problem(s) that requires attention and resolution.
  • Centralization. A dimension of organizational structure that refers to the extent to which authority to make decisions is retained in top management.
  • Chameleon effect. The practice of mimicking another person's mannerisms, facial expressions, and body movements.
  • Change agent. A person who acts as the initiator for change activities. Can be internal members of the firm or external consultants.
  • Charismatic leader. The charismatic leader is one who creates an atmosphere of motivation based on an emotional commitment to and identity with his or her vision, philosophy, and style on the part of followers.
  • Classical design theory. A body of literature that evolved from scientific management, classical organization, and bureaucratic theory. The theory emphasizes the design of a preplanned structure for doing work. It minimizes the importance of the social system.
  • Classical organization theory. The body of literature that developed from the writings of managers who proposed principles of organization. These principles were intended to serve as guidelines for other managers.
  • Coaching. The everyday interaction of helping, guiding, and encouraging another employee to improve his or her understanding of the work and improve performance.
  • Coercive power. Influence over others based on fear. A subordinate perceives that failure to comply with the wishes of a superior would lead to punishment or some other negative outcome.
  • Cognition. This is basically what individuals know about themselves and their environment. Cognition implies a conscious process of acquiring knowledge.
  • Cognitive dissonance. A mental state of anxiety that occurs when there is a conflict among an individual's various cognitions (for example, attitudes and beliefs) after a decision has been made.
  • Cohesiveness. The attractiveness strength existing between a group or team of individuals.
  • Command group. A group of subordinates who report to one particular manager. The command group is specified by the formal organization chart.
  • Commitment. A sense of identification, involvement, and loyalty expressed by an employee toward the company.
  • Communication. The transmission of information and understanding through the use of common symbols.
  • Competitive intelligence. A system of gathering, analyzing, and acting on information about another firm.
  • Complexity. A dimension of organizational structure that refers to the number of different jobs and/or units within an organization.
  • Compliance. Being in agreement with specific legal, organizational, or official requirements.
  • Compressed workweek. An alternative work arrangement in which the standard five-day, 40-hour workweek is compressed. The most popular is four 10-hour days.
  • Concierge services. An employee benefit that allows employees to pay for a provider to do everyday services on their behalf. Helping balance employees' busy lives, concierge services may include any/all of the following: doing personal shopping during the holidays, finding estimates for an automotive repair, and making restaurant reservations.
  • Conflict. A situation where a person or group believes they are losing power, resources, or status because of another person or group.
  • Conscientiousness . One of the Big Five personality dimensions; it is the tendency to be dependable, organized, thorough, and responsible.
  • Conscious goals. The main goals a person is striving toward and is aware of when directing behavior.
  • Consensus. In attribution theory, the degree to which other people are engaging in the same behavior.
  • Consideration. Involves behavior indicating friendship, mutual trust, respect, warmth, and rapport between the leader and the followers.
  • Consistency. In attribution theory, the degree to which a person engages in the same behaviors at different times.
  • Content approaches to motivation. Theories that focus on the factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior.
  • Contingency approach to management. This approach to management is based on the belief that there is no one best way to manage in every situation but that managers must find different ways that fit different situations.
  • Contingency design theory. An approach to designing organizations where the effective structure depends on factors in the situation.
  • Continuous reinforcement. A schedule that is designed to reinforce behavior every time the behavior exhibited is correct.
  • Corporate social responsibility. Actions that corporations undertake to promote the public good beyond those required by law or the immediate interest of financial stakeholders.
  • Creativity. Process by which an individual, group, or team produces novel and useful ideas to solve a problem or capture an opportunity.
  • Cultural diversity. The vast array of differences created by cultural phenomena such as history, economic conditions, personality characteristics, language norms, and mores.
  • Cyberslacking. The use of the Internet during office or work hours for personal reasons.
  • Decentralization. Basically, this entails pushing the decision-making point to the lowest managerial level possible. It involves the delegation of decision-making authority.
  • Decision. A means to achieve some result or to solve some problem. The outcome of a process that is influenced by many forces.
  • Decision acceptance. An important criterion in the Vroom-Jago model that refers to the degree of subordinate commitment to the decision.
  • Decision quality. An important criterion in the Vroom-Jago model that refers to the degree to which a decision impacts subordinates' performance.
  • Decoding. The mental procedure that the receiver of a message goes through to decipher the message.
  • Delegated strategies. Strategies for introducing organizational change that allow active participation by subordinates.
  • Delegation of authority. The process by which authority is distributed downward in an organization.
  • Delphi technique. A technique used to improve group decision making that involves the solicitation and comparison of anonymous judgments on the topic of interest through a set of sequential questionnaires interspersed with summarized information and feedback of opinions from earlier responses.
  • Departmentalization. The manner in which an organization is structurally divided. Some of the more publicized divisions are by function, territory, product, customer, and project.
  • Development. A criterion of effectiveness that refers to the organization's ability to increase its responsiveness to current and future environmental demands. Equivalent or similar terms include institutionalization, stability, and integration.
  • Devil's advocacy. A form of programmed conflict in which someone or some group is assigned the role of critic whose job it is to uncover all possible problems with a particular proposal.
  • Devil's advocate. An appointed critic of proposed group actions whose intent is to uncover underlying issues with the prevailing direction of the group.
  • Diagonal communication. Communication that cuts across functions and levels in an organization.
  • Distinctiveness. In attribution theory, the degree to which a person behaves similarly in different situations.
  • Distributive justice. The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed throughout an organization.
  • Diversity. Refers to those attributes that make people different from one another. Primary dimensions of diversity include age, ethnicity, gender, physical attributes, race, and sexual/affectional orientation.
  • Division of labor. The process of dividing work into relatively specialized jobs to achieve advantages of specialization.
  • Downward communication. Communication that flows from individuals in higher levels of the organization's hierarchy to those in lower levels.
  • Dysfunctional conflict. A confrontation or interaction between groups that harms the organization or hinders the achievement of organizational goals.
  • Economic forces. Forces in the environment that can influence what occurs within a firm, such as security markets, interest rates, foreign currency fluctuations, and competitors' pricing strategies.
  • Effectiveness. In the context of organizational behavior, effectiveness refers to the optimal relationship among five components: production, efficiency, satisfaction, adaptiveness, and development.
  • Efficiency. A short-run criterion of effectiveness that refers to the organization's ability to produce outputs with minimum use of inputs. The measures of efficiency are always in ratio terms, such as benefit/cost, cost/output, and cost/time.
  • Emotional intelligence (EI). The ability to manage one's own and others' emotions in order to guide one's behavior and achieve goals.
  • Emotional labor. The effort and work to manage your emotions to keep them under control.
  • Emotional stability . One of the Big Five personality dimensions; it is the tendency to be calm, serene, relaxed, and secure.
  • Emotion-focused coping. The actions taken by a person to alleviate stressful emotions. The actions center on avoidance or escape from a person, problem, or event.
  • Emotions. A state of physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings.
  • Employee assistance program. An employee benefit program designed to deal with a wide range of stress-related problems, including behavioral and emotional difficulties, substance abuse, and family and marital discord.
  • Employee-centered leader. Focuses on having people complete the work and believes in delegating decision making and aiding employees in satisfying their needs by creating a work supportive environment.
  • Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs). An employee reward program in which organizations make contributions of stock (or cash to purchase stock) to employees. Stock allocation is typically, but not always, based on seniority.
  • Empowerment. Sharing power and authority with subordinates to increase their confidence and effectiveness.
  • Encoding. The conversion of an idea into an understandable message by a communicator.
  • Environmental forces. Forces for change beyond the control of the manager. These forces include marketplace actions, technological changes, and social and political changes.
  • Equity theory. A theory of motivation that examines how a person might respond to perceived discrepancies between her input/outcome ratio and that of a reference person.
  • ERG theory. A need hierarchy theory of motivation comprised of three sets of needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G).
  • Escalation of commitment. An impediment to effective decision making, it refers to an increasing adherence to a previous decision when a rational decision maker would withdraw. It typically results from a need to turn a losing or poor decision into a winning or good decision.
  • Expectancy. The perceived likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome.
  • Expectancy theory. A theory of motivation that suggests employees are more likely to be motivated when they perceive their efforts will result in successful performance and, ultimately, desired rewards and outcomes.
  • Experiment. To be considered an experiment, an investigation must contain two elements -- manipulation of some variable (independent variable) and observation of the results (dependent variable).
  • Expert power. Capacity to influence related to some expertise, special skill, or knowledge. Expert power is a function of the judgment of the less-powerful person that the other person has ability or knowledge that exceeds his own.
  • External attribution. Tendency to assume that events are caused by factors outside of a person's control.
  • External change agent. A person from outside an organization who initiates change.
  • Extinction. The decline in the response rate because of nonreinforcement.
  • Extranet. A private, protected electronic communication system that is designed to connect employees with individuals external to the organization, such as vendors, customers, or other strategic partners.
  • Extrinsic rewards. Rewards external to the job, such as pay, promotion, or fringe benefits.
  • Extroversion . One of the Big Five personality dimensions; it is a trait that indicates a person's outgoing, sociable behavior.
  • Felt conflict. The second stage of conflict that includes emotional involvement. It is felt in the form of anxiety, tension, and/or hostility. See also perceived conflict and manifest conflict.
  • Field experiment. Experiment in which the investigator attempts to manipulate and control variables in the natural setting rather than in a laboratory.
  • Fixed-interval reinforcement. A situation in which a reinforcer is applied only after a certain period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer was applied.
  • Flexible benefits plans (cafeteria benefits plans). Plans that allow employees to choose benefits that suit them and to make adjustments to meet their changing needs.
  • Flextime. An arrangement that provides employees greater individual control over work scheduling. In a flextime schedule, employees can determine, within some limits, when they will go to work. In most flextime plans, employees may vary their schedule day to day, provided they work a specific number of hours a week.
  • Formal group. A group formed by management to accomplish the goals of the organization.
  • Formalization. A dimension of organizational structure that refers to the extent to which rules, procedures, and other guides to action are written and enforced.
  • Formal organization. The recognized and sanctioned structure, policies, and rules of a unit or institution.
  • Fraud. An intentional act of deceiving or misrepresenting to induce another individual or group to give up something of value.
  • Friendship group. An informal group that is established in the workplace because of some common characteristic of its members and that may extend the interaction of its members to include activities outside the workplace.
  • Functional conflict. A confrontation between groups that enhances and benefits the organization's performance.
  • Functional job analysis (FJA). A method of job analysis that focuses attention on the worker's specific job activities, methods, machines, and output. The method is used widely to analyze and classify jobs.
  • Fundamental attribution error. A tendency to underestimate the importance of external factors and overestimate the importance of internal factors when making attributions about the behavior of others.
  • Gain-sharing. A reward system in which employees share in the financial benefits the organization accrues from improved operating efficiencies and effectiveness. Gainsharing can take many different forms including cash awards for suggestions and bonus plans.
  • Glass ceiling. An invisible barrier that blocks qualified individuals from making career progress or receiving a fair share of the rewards.
  • Globalism. The interdependency of transportation, distribution, communication, and economic networks across international borders.
  • Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness project (GLOBE project). A large international research project that analyzed data on 62 cultures to identify and understand managers' perceptions of cultural practices and values from their home countries.
  • Goal. A specific target that an individual is trying to achieve; a goal is the target (object) of an action.
  • Goal approach to effectiveness. A perspective on effectiveness that emphasizes the central role of goal achievement as the criterion for assessing effectiveness.
  • Goal commitment. The amount of effort that is actually used to achieve a goal.
  • Goal difficulty. The degree of proficiency or the level of goal performance that is being sought.
  • Goal intensity. The process of setting a goal or of determining how to reach it.
  • Goal orientation. A concept that refers to the focus of attention and decision making among the members of a subunit.
  • Goal participation. The amount of a person's involvement in setting task and personal development goals.
  • Goal setting. The process of establishing goals. In many cases, goal setting involves a superior and subordinate working together to set the subordinate's goals for a specified period of time.
  • Goal specificity. The degree of quantitative precision of the goal.
  • Golem effect. A self-fulfilling prophecy that causes a person to behave in a negative manner to meet low expectations.
  • Grapevine. An informal communication network that exists in organizations and short-circuits the formal channels.
  • Group. Two or more individuals interacting with each other to accomplish a common goal.
  • Group cohesiveness. The strength of the members' desires to remain in the group and the strength of their commitment to the group.
  • Group norms. Standards shared by the members of a group.
  • Groupthink. The deterioration of the mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment of the individual members of a group in the interest of group solidarity.
  • Halo effect. In perception, it occurs when a person allows one important factor or characteristic to bias his or her view, impression, or evaluation.
  • Hardiness. A personality trait that appears to buffer an individual's response to stress. The hardy person assumes that he or she is in control, is highly committed to lively activities, and treats change as a challenge.
  • Hawthorne studies. A series of studies undertaken at the Chicago Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric from 1924 to 1933. The studies made major contributions to the knowledge of the importance of the social system of an organization. They provided the impetus for the human relations approach to organizations.
  • Health promotion program. See wellness program.
  • Horizontal communication. Communication that flows between individuals at similar levels in an organization.
  • Horizontal differentiation. The number of different units existing at the same level in an organization. The greater the horizontal differentiation, the more complex is the organization.
  • Impression management. The attempt to influence others' perceptions of you; a political strategy that refers to actions individuals take to control the impressions that others form of them.
  • Incentive plan criteria. To be effective in motivating employees, incentives should (1) be related to specific behavioral patterns (for example, better performance), (2) be received immediately after the behavior is displayed, and (3) reward the employee for consistently displaying the desired behavior.
  • Incivility. In the workplace, this is behavior that is designated as rude, discourteous, or demeaning toward others.
  • Influence. A transaction in which a person or a group acts in such a way as to change the behavior of another person or group. Influence is the demonstrated use of power.
  • Informal group. A group formed by individuals and developed around common interests and friendships rather than around an organizational goal.
  • Information flow requirements. The amount of information that must be processed by an organization, group, or individual to perform effectively.
  • Information richness. Refers to the amount of information that can be transmitted or communicated in an effective manner. Face-to-face interactions are high in information richness; a general e-mail to all employees is low in information richness.
  • Informational justice. The perceived fairness of the communication provided to employees from authorities.
  • Initiating structure. Refers to behavior in which the leader organizes and defines the relationships in the group, tends to establish well-defined patterns and channels of communication, and spells out ways of getting the job done.
  • Inputs. Goods and services (raw materials, human resources, energy, etc.) organizations take in and use to create products or services.
  • Instrumentality. The relationship between first- and second-level outcomes.
  • Interaction. Any interpersonal contact in which one individual acts and one or more other individuals respond to the action.
  • Interest group. A group that forms because of some special topic of interest. Generally, when the interest declines or a goal has been achieved, the group disbands.
  • Intergroup conflict. Conflict between groups; can be functional or dysfunctional.
  • Internal attribution. Tendency to assume that events are caused by factors within a person's control.
  • Internal change agent. A person, manager or nonmanager, working for an organization, who initiates change.
  • Internal forces. Forces for change that occur within the organization and that usually can be traced to process and to behavioral causes.
  • Internet. A global network of integrated computers that provides users with information, video, documents, and a vast array of communication capabilities.
  • Interpersonal communication. Communication that flows from individual to individual in face-to-face and group settings.
  • Interpersonal justice. Judgments made by employees about the perceived fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities.
  • Interpersonal orientation. A concept that refers to whether a person is more concerned with achieving good social relations as opposed to achieving a task.
  • Interpersonal rewards. Extrinsic rewards such as receiving recognition or being able to interact socially in the job.
  • Interpersonal style. The way in which an individual prefers to relate to others.
  • Interrole conflict. A type of conflict that results from facing multiple roles. It occurs because individuals simultaneously perform many roles, some of which have conflicting expectations.
  • Intervention. The process by which either outsiders or insiders assume the role of a change agent in the OD program.
  • Intimidation. An impression management tactic whereby individuals use threats and harassment to appear powerful.
  • Intranet. A private, protected electronic communication system within an organization; intranets allow certain stakeholders to gain access to internal organizational information.
  • Intrinsic rewards. Rewards that are part of the job itself. The responsibility, challenge, and feedback characteristics of the job are intrinsic rewards.
  • Job analysis. The description of how one job differs from another in terms of the demands, activities, and skills required.
  • Job-centered leader. Focuses on encouraging employees to complete the task and uses close supervision so that individuals perform their tasks using acceptable and timely procedures.
  • Job content. The factors that define the general nature of a job.
  • Job context. The physical environment and other working conditions, along with other factors considered to be intrinsic to a job.
  • Job definition. The first subproblem of the organizing decision. It involves the determination of task requirements of each job in the organization.
  • Job depth. The amount of control that an individual has to alter or influence the job and the surrounding environment.
  • Job description. A summary statement of what an employee actually does on the job.
  • Job design. The process of specifying the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job.
  • Job embeddedness. Refers to an employee's connection with other employees within the organization, fit with the job/organization/community, and sacrifices that would be made if he or she were to leave the organization.
  • Job enlargement. An administrative action that involves increasing the range of a job. Supposedly, this action results in better performance and a more satisfied workforce.
  • Job enrichment. An approach developed by Herzberg that seeks to improve task efficiency and human satisfaction by means of building into people's jobs greater scope for personal achievement and recognition, more challenging and responsible work, and more opportunity for individual advancement and growth.
  • Job evaluation. The assignment of dollar value to a job.
  • Job performance. A set of employee work-related behaviors designed to accomplish organizational goals.
  • Job range. The number of operations that a job occupant performs to complete a task.
  • Job relationships. The interpersonal relationships that are required of or made possible by a job.
  • Job requirements. Factors such as education, experience, degrees, licenses, and other personal characteristics required to perform a job.
  • Job rotation. A form of training that involves moving an employee from one workstation to another. In addition to achieving the training objective, this procedure also is designed to reduce boredom.
  • Job satisfaction. The feelings, beliefs, and attitudes that employees have regarding their jobs.
  • Job sharing. A form of alternative work arrangement in which two or more individuals share the same job. One jobholder might work in the mornings, while a second jobholder works in the afternoon. Job sharing increases employee discretion.
  • Job specification. A product of a job analysis. A job specification identifies the minimum acceptable qualifications that a jobholder must have to perform the job at an acceptable level. It may include specifications for educational level, knowledge, skills, aptitudes, and previous experience.
  • Kinesics. The study of communication through body movement, postures, gestures, and facial expressions.
  • Laboratory experiment. Experiment in which the researcher creates an environment in which the subject works. This setting permits the researcher to control closely the experimental conditions.
  • Leader-member relations. A factor in the Fiedler contingency model that refers to the degree of confidence, trust, and respect that the leader obtains from the followers.
  • Leadership. Using influence in an organizational setting or situation, producing effects that are meaningful and have a direct impact on accomplishing challenging goals.
  • Leadership climate. The nature of the work environment in an organization that results from the leadership style and administrative practices of managers.
  • Learning. The process by which a relatively enduring change in behavior occurs as a result of practice.
  • Learning transfer. An important learning principle that emphasizes the carryover of learning into the workplace.
  • Legitimate power. Capacity to influence derived from the position of a manager in the organizational hierarchy. Subordinates believe that they "ought" to comply.
  • Locus of control. Specifies a person's beliefs that he or she does not master his or her fate.
  • Management by objectives (MBO). A process under which superiors and subordinates jointly set goals for a specified time period and then meet again to evaluate the subordinates' performance in terms of those previously established goals.
  • Manifest conflict. The final stage in conflict. At the manifest conflict stage, the conflicting parties are actively engaging in conflict behavior. Manifest conflict is usually very apparent to noninvolved parties. See also perceived conflict and felt conflict.
  • Matrix model of organizational design. An organizational design that superimposes a product- or projectbased design on an existing function-based design.
  • Mechanistic model of organizational design. The type of organizational design that emphasizes the importance of production and efficiency. It is highly formalized, centralized, and complex.
  • Mental ability. Refers to one's level of intelligence and can be divided into subcategories, including verbal fluency and comprehension, inductive and deductive reasoning, associative memory, and spatial orientation.
  • Mentor. A person who provides one-on-one coaching, friendship, sponsorship, and role modeling examples to a less experienced protégé -- a mentee.
  • Meta-analysis. A statistical procedure that pools the results of multiple research studies to derive an aggregated based result and interpretation of the findings.
  • Mission. The ultimate, primary purpose of an organization. An organization's mission is what society expects from the organization in exchange for its continuing survival.
  • Modeling. A method of administering rewards in which employees learn the behaviors that are desirable by observing how others are rewarded. It is assumed that behaviors will be imitated if the observer views a distinct link between performance and rewards.
  • Modified workweek or compressed workweek. A shortened workweek. The form of the modified workweek that involves working four days a week, 10 hours each day, is called a 4/40. The 3/36 and 4/32 schedules also are being used.
  • Mood. A long-lasting state of emotion.
  • Mood (or emotional contagion). The transfer of mood or emotions from one individual to others.
  • Motion study. The process of analyzing a task to determine the preferred motions to be used in its completion.
  • Motivator-hygiene theory. The Herzberg approach that identifies conditions of the job that operate primarily to dissatisfy employees when they are not present (hygiene factors -- salary, job security, work conditions, and so on). There also are job conditions that lead to high levels of motivation and job satisfaction. However, the absence of these conditions does not prove highly dissatisfying. The conditions include achievements, growth, and advancement opportunities.
  • Multicultural communication. This occurs when two or more individuals from different cultures communicate with one another.
  • Multiple roles. The notion that most individuals play many roles simultaneously because they occupy many different positions in a variety of institutions and organizations.
  • National culture. The sum total of the beliefs, rituals, rules, customs, artifacts, and institutions that characterize the population of a nation.
  • Need for power. A person's desire to have an impact on others. The impact can occur by such behaviors as action, the giving of help or advice, or concern for reputation.
  • Need hierarchy model. Maslow assumed that the needs of a person depend on what he or she already has. This in a sense means that a satisfied need is not a motivator. Human needs are organized in a hierarchy of importance. The five need classifications are: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.
  • Needs. The deficiencies that an individual experiences at a particular point in time.
  • Noise. Interference in the flow of a message from a sender to a receiver.
  • Nominal group technique (NGT). A technique to improve group decision making that brings people together in a very structured meeting that does not allow for much verbal communication. The group decision is the mathematically pooled outcome of individual votes.
  • Nonprogrammed decisions. Decisions required for unique and complex management problems.
  • Nonverbal communication. Messages sent with body posture, facial expressions, and head and eye movements.
  • Norms. The standards of behavior shared by members of a group.
  • Openness to experience . One of the Big Five personality dimensions; it reflects the extent to which an individual is broad-minded, creative, curious, and intelligent.
  • Operant. Behaviors amenable to control by altering the consequences (rewards and punishments) that follow them.
  • Optimal balance. The most desirable relationship among the criteria of effectiveness. Optimal, rather than maximum, balance must be achieved in any case of more than one criterion.
  • Organic model of organizational design. The organizational design that emphasizes the importance of adaptability and development. It is relatively informal, decentralized, and simple.
  • Organizational behavior (OB). Drawing on psychology, sociology, political science, and cultural anthropology, OB is the study of the impact that individuals, groups, and organizational structure and processes have on behavior within organizations.
  • Organizational behavior modification. An operant approach to organizational behavior. This term is used interchangeably with the term behavior modification.
  • Organizational climate. A set of properties of the work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the employees, that is assumed to be a major force in influencing employee behavior.
  • Organizational commitment. When an individual aligns very closely with the programs, goals, and systems of the organization.
  • Organizational culture. The pervasive system of values, beliefs, and norms that exists in any organization. The organizational culture can encourage or discourage effectiveness, depending on the nature of the values, beliefs, and norms.
  • Organizational design. A specific organizational structure that results from managers' decisions and actions. Also, the process by which managers choose among alternative frameworks of jobs and departments.
  • Organizational development. The process of preparing for and managing change in organizational settings.
  • Organizational justice. An area of organizational science research that focuses on perceptions and judgments by employees regarding the fairness of their organizations' procedures and decisions.
  • Organizational politics. The activities used to acquire, develop, and use power and other resources to obtain one's preferred outcome when there is uncertainty or disagreement about choices.
  • Organizational processes. The activities that breathe life into the organizational structure. Among the common organizational processes are communication, decision making, socialization, and career development.
  • Organizational structure. The formal pattern of how people and jobs are grouped in an organization. The organizational structure is often illustrated by an organization chart.
  • Organizations. Institutions that enable society to pursue goals that could not be achieved by individuals acting alone.
  • Outputs. The products and services (smartphones, food, social networking sites, etc.) that organizations create.
  • Participative management. A concept of managing that encourages employees' participation in decision making and in matters that affect their jobs.
  • Path clarification. The leader's efforts to clarify for employees the kind of behavior most likely to result in goal accomplishment.
  • Path-goal leadership model. A theory that suggests it is necessary for a leader to influence the followers' perception of work goals, self-development goals, and paths to goal attainment. The foundation for the model is expectancy motivation theory.
  • Perceived conflict. The first stage of the conflict process. Perceived conflict exists when there is a cognitive awareness on the part of at least one party that events have occurred or that conditions exist favorable to creating overt conflict. See also felt conflict and manifest conflict.
  • Perception. The process by which an individual gives meaning to environmental stimuli. It involves observing, selecting, and interpreting information.
  • Personal-behavioral leadership theories. A group of leadership theories that are based primarily on the personal and behavioral characteristics of leaders. The theories focus on what leaders do and/or how they behave in carrying out the leadership function.
  • Person-organization fit. The extent to which a person's values and personality are perceived to fit the culture of the organization.
  • Personality. A stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine commonalities and differences in the behavior of people.
  • Personality test. A test used to measure the emotional, motivational, interpersonal, and attitude characteristics that make up a person's personality.
  • Person-role conflict. A type of conflict that occurs when the requirements of a position violate the basic values, attitudes, and needs of the individual occupying the position.
  • Pooled interdependence. Interdependence that requires no interaction between groups because each group, in effect, performs separately.
  • Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ). A method of job analysis that takes into account the human, task, and technological factors of jobs and job classes.
  • Position power. A factor in the Fiedler contingency model that refers to the power inherent in the leadership position.
  • Power of human resources. The ability to get things done in the way one wants them to be done.
  • Power illusion. The notion that a person with little power actually has significant power. The Milgram experiments indicate that the participants were obedient to commands given by an individual who seemed to have power, wore a white coat, was addressed as "doctor," and acted quite stern.
  • Prejudice. A stereotype that doesn't change even when information disputing it is presented.
  • Privacy. A condition that limits or forbids another person's access to an individual's records, data, or information.
  • Problem-focused coping. The actions taken by an individual to cope with a stressful person, situation, or event.
  • Procedural justice. The perceived fairness of the processes used by the organization to arrive at important decisions.
  • Process. In systems theory, the process element consists of technical and administrative activities that are brought to bear on inputs to transform them into outputs.
  • Process approaches to motivation. Theories that provide a description and analysis of the process by which behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped.
  • Production. A criterion of effectiveness that refers to the organization's ability to provide the outputs the environment demands of it.
  • Programmed decisions. Situations in which specific procedures have been developed for repetitive and routine problems.
  • Psychological contract. An unwritten agreement between an employee and the organization that specifies what each expects to give to and receive from the other.
  • Psychological contract breach. Employee perception that the organization has failed to fulfill an unwritten exchange agreement.
  • Punishment. Presenting an uncomfortable consequence for a particular behavior response or removing a desirable reinforcer because of a particular behavior response. Managers can punish by application or punish by removal.
  • Pygmalion effect. A self-fulfilling prophecy that causes a person to behave in a positive manner to meet expectations.
  • Qualitative overload. A situation in which a person feels that he or she lacks the ability or skill to do a job or that the performance standards have been set too high.
  • Quality circle. A small group of employees who meet on a regular basis, usually on company time, to recommend improvements and solve quality-related problems. Frequently a part of total quality management efforts.
  • Quality of work life (QWL). Management philosophy and practice that enhance employee dignity, introduce cultural changes, and provide opportunities for growth and development.
  • Quantitative overload. A situation in which a person feels that he or she has too many things to do or insufficient time to complete a job.
  • Rapidity of change. The speed at which change occurs. Rapid change is found in many areas such as technology, demographics, globalism, and new products and services.
  • Reciprocal causation of leadership. The argument that follower behavior has an impact on leader behavior and that leader behavior influences follower behavior.
  • Reciprocal interdependence. Interdependence that requires the output of each group in an organization to serve as input to other groups in the organization.
  • Referent power. Power based on a subordinates' identification with a charismatic superior. The more powerful individual is admired because of certain traits, and the subordinate is influenced because of this admiration.
  • Reward power. An influence over others based on hope of reward; the opposite of coercive power. A subordinate perceives that compliance with the wishes of a superior will lead to positive rewards, either monetary or psychological.
  • Resistance to change. Behavioral, cognitive, or emotional upset and resistance to real or perceived work-related changes.
  • Role. An organized set of behaviors.
  • Sabotage. An extreme form of workplace violence instituted to disrupt, destroy, or damage equipment, data, a work area, or relationships with key stakeholders.
  • Satisfaction. A criterion of effectiveness that refers to the organization's ability to gratify the needs of its participants. Similar terms include morale and voluntarism.
  • Scalar chain. The graded chain of authority created through the delegation process.
  • Scientific management. A body of literature that emerged during the period 1890-1930 and that reports the ideas and theories of engineers concerned with such problems as job definition, incentive systems, and selection and training.
  • Scope. The scale on which an organizational change is implemented (for example, throughout the entire organization, level by level, or department by department).
  • Self-efficacy. Related to an individual's belief that he or she can successfully complete a task. People with high levels of self-efficacy firmly believe in their performance capabilities. The concept of self-efficacy includes three dimensions: magnitude, strength, and generality.
  • Self-handicapping. Any action taken in advance of an outcome that is designed to provide either an excuse for failure or a credit for success.
  • Self-managed team (SMT). Groups of employees that complete an entire piece of work while having considerable autonomy over the way in which they accomplish their work.
  • Self-serving bias. Tendency to take credit for successful work and deny responsibility for poor work.
  • Self-promotion. An impression management tactic whereby individuals communicate their accomplishments to appear able and competent.
  • Sequential interdependence. Interdependence that requires one group to complete its task before another group can complete its task.
  • Servant leader. A leader who emphasizes employee growth and service to others as worthwhile ends in and of themselves, placing others' needs in front of his or her own.
  • Sexual harassment. Unwelcome advances, requests for sexual favors, and other types of verbal, psychological, or physical abuses.
  • Similar-to-me errors. Using yourself as a benchmark against which others are judged.
  • Situational leadership theory (SLT). An approach to leadership advocating that leaders understand their own behavior and the readiness of their followers.
  • Six Sigma. A quality standard and management process that specifies a goal of no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities.
  • Skunkworks. A secretive research and development project that operates outside of normal company operations to create innovative products.
  • Socialization. The process by which an individual comes to appreciate the values, abilities, expected behaviors, and social knowledge essential for assuming an organizational role and for participating as an organization member.
  • Social loafing. The tendency for individuals to exert less effort in groups than when working individually.
  • Social support. The comfort, assistance, or information an individual receives through formal or informal contacts with individuals or groups.
  • Spam. A barrier to effective e-mail communication, this is unsolicited commercial solicitations that enter and clutter an employee's e-mail in-box.
  • Span of control. The number of subordinates reporting to a superior. The span is a factor that affects the shape and height of an organizational structure.
  • Status. In an organizational setting, status relates to positions in the formal or informal structure. Status is designated in the formal organizations, whereas in informal groups it is determined by the group.
  • Status consensus. The agreement of group members about the relative status of members of the group.
  • Stereotyping. A translation step in the perceptual process that people use to classify or categorize events, people, or situations.
  • Strategic contingency. An event or activity that is extremely important for accomplishing organizational goals. Among the strategic contingencies of subunits are dependency, scarcity of resources, coping with uncertainty, centrality, and substitutability.
  • Stress. An adaptive response, moderated by individual differences, that is a consequence of any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person.
  • Stressor. An external event or situation that is potentially harmful to a person.
  • Structure. The established patterns of interacting in an organization and of coordinating the technology and human assets of the organization.
  • Structure (in group context). Used in the context of groups, the term structure refers to the standards of conduct that are applied by the group, the communication system, and the reward and sanction mechanism of the group.
  • Substitutability. The ability of various work units to perform the activities of other work units.
  • Subunit (business unit or strategic business unit). A semi-autonomous part of an overall organization that is a center for coordinated actions; usually it is organized around a product line and competes against other organizations.
  • Superordinate goal. A goal that cannot be achieved without the cooperation of the conflicting groups.
  • Supportive organizational climate. The amount of perceived support employees receive from their co-workers, supervisor, and other departments that helps them successfully perform their job duties.
  • Survey. A survey usually attempts to measure one or more characteristics in many people, usually at one point in time. Basically, surveys are used to investigate current problems and events.
  • System-4 organization. The universalistic theory of organization design proposed by Likert. The theory is defined in terms of overlapping groups, linking-pin management, and the principle of supportiveness.
  • Systems theory. A theory stating that an organization is a managed system that changes inputs into outputs.
  • Tacit knowledge. The work-related practical know-how that employees acquire through observation and direct experience on the job.
  • Task group. A group of individuals who are working as a unit to complete a project or job task.
  • Task structure. A factor in the Fiedler contingency model that refers to how structured a job is with regard to requirements, problem-solving alternatives, and feedback on how correctly the job has been accomplished.
  • Team. Group of individuals with complementary skills that share a common purpose, responsibility, and accountability for achieving performance goals.
  • Team building. A type of planned intervention that is meant to build self-awareness and camaraderie among members of a team.
  • Technology. Refers to actions, physical and mental, that an individual performs upon some object, person, or problem to change it in some way.
  • Telecommuting. An alternative work arrangement in which an employee works at home while being linked to the office via a computer and/or fax machine.
  • Testing. A source of error in experimental studies. The error occurs when changes in the performance of the subject arise because previous measurement of his performance made him aware that he was part of an experiment.
  • Theft. Unauthorized taking, consuming, or transfer of money or goods owned by the organization.
  • Time orientation. A concept that refers to the time horizon of decisions. Employees may have relatively short- or long-term orientations, depending on the nature of their jobs.
  • Time study. The process of determining the appropriate elapsed time for the completion of a task.
  • Timing. The point in time that has been selected to initiate an organizational change method.
  • Tolerance for ambiguity. The tendency to perceive ambiguous situations or events as desirable. On the other hand, intolerance for ambiguity is the tendency to perceive ambiguous situations or events as sources of threat.
  • Total quality management (TQM). A philosophy and system of management that, using statistical process control and group problem-solving processes, places the greatest priority on attaining high standards for quality and continuous improvement.
  • Trait theory of leadership. An attempt to identify specific characteristics (physical, mental, personality) associated with leadership success. The theory relies on research that relates various traits to certain success criteria.
  • Transactional leader. Helps the follower identify what must be done to accomplish the desired results (e.g., better-quality output, more sales or services, reduced cost of production) and ensures that employees have the resources needed to complete the job.
  • Transformational leader. Motivates followers to work for goals instead of short-term self-interest and for achievement and self-actualization instead of security; is able to express a clear vision and inspire others to strive to accomplish the vision.
  • Type A behavior pattern. Associated with research conducted on coronary heart disease. The Type A person is an aggressive driver who is ambitious, competitive, taskoriented, and always on the move. Rosenman and Friedman, two medical researchers, suggest that Type As have more heart attacks than do Type Bs.
  • Unilateral strategies. Strategies for introducing organizational changes that do not allow for participation by subordinates.
  • Universal design theory. A point of view that states there is "one best way" to design an organization.
  • Upward communication. Upward communication flows from individuals at lower levels of the organizational structure to those at higher levels. Among the most common upward communication flows are suggestion boxes, group meetings, and appeal or grievance procedures.
  • Valence. The strength of a person's preference for a particular outcome.
  • Values. The guidelines and beliefs that a person uses when confronted with a situation in which a choice must be made.
  • Vertical differentiation. The number of authority levels in an organization. The more authority levels an organization has, the more complex is the organization.
  • Virtual organizations. A collection of geographically distributed, functionally and/or culturally diverse aggregations of individuals that are linked by electronic forms of communications.
  • Virtual teams. Teams whose members use technology to work across location and time boundaries to accomplish an interdependent objective.
  • Vroom-Jago leadership model. A leadership model that specifies which leadership decision-making procedures will be most effective in each of several different situations.
  • Wellness program. An employee program focusing on the individual's overall physical and mental health. Wellness programs may include a variety of activities designed to identify and assist in preventing or correcting specific health problems, health hazards, or negative health habits.
  • Zone of indifference. When individuals accept orders from superiors without questioning their authority.
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